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A study of thinking

  • 1 study

    1. сущ.
    1) общ. изучение, исследование

    domain [field\] of study — область изучения

    See:
    2) обр., обычно мн. занятия, обучение, учеба, изучение

    year of study — учебный год, год обучения

    He devoted the afternoons to study. — Вторую половину дня он посвящал учебе.

    3) общ. наука; область науки
    4)
    а) общ., мн. результаты исследований
    б) общ. научная работа, монография; исследование
    2. гл.
    1) общ. изучать, исследовать

    This researcher is studying the effect of sleep on aggression, thinking that less sleep will lead to more aggression. — Этот исследователь изучает влияние сна на агрессию, полагая, что сокращение времени сна ведет к повышению агрессии.

    Syn:
    2) обр. учиться, заниматься; подготавливаться, готовиться

    to study under smb. — учиться у кого-л.

    to study diligently [hard\] — усердно учиться, прилежно заниматься

    Syn:
    See:

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > study

  • 2 -to study o to learn?-

    Nota d'uso
    I verbi to study e to learn possono essere tradotti con “studiare”, ma possiedono delle sfumature diverse di significato. Quando si utilizza to study, si pone l'enfasi sull'atto dello studio, mentre quando si usa to learn, si pone più attenzione al risultato, cioé all'apprendimento: He's studying at the University of London, studia alla University of London (non He's learning at the University of London); I'm thinking of learning Chinese, sto pensando di studiare il cinese (per impararlo).

    English-Italian dictionary > -to study o to learn?-

  • 3 creative thinking

    Англо-русский словарь промышленной и научной лексики > creative thinking

  • 4 new method study

    Англо-русский словарь промышленной и научной лексики > new method study

  • 5 Bibliography

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     ■ Woodworth, R. S. (1938). Experimental psychology. New York: Holt; London: Methuen (1939).
     ■ Wundt, W. (1904). Principles of physiological psychology (Vol. 1). E. B. Titchener (Trans.). New York: Macmillan.
     ■ Wundt, W. (1907). Lectures on human and animal psychology. J. E. Creighton & E. B. Titchener (Trans.). New York: Macmillan.
     ■ Young, J. Z. (1978). Programs of the brain. New York: Oxford University Press.
     ■ Ziman, J. (1978). Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Bibliography

  • 6 ज्ञानम् _jñānam

    ज्ञानम् [ज्ञा-भावे ल्युट्]
    1 Knowing, understanding, becoming acquainted with, proficiency; सांख्यस्य योगस्य च ज्ञानम् Māl.1.7.
    -2 Knowledge, learning; तथेन्द्रियाकुलीभावे ज्ञेयं ज्ञानेन शुध्यति Mb.12.24.2; बुद्धिर्ज्ञानेन शुध्यति Ms.5.19; ज्ञाने मौनं क्षमा शत्रौ R.1.22.
    -3 Consciousness, cognizance, knowledge; ज्ञानतो$ज्ञानतो वापि Ms.8.288 knowingly or unknowingly, consciously or unconsciously.
    -4 Sacred knowledge; especially, knowledge derived from medi- tation on the higher truths of religion and philosophy which teaches man how to understand his own nature and how he may be reunited to the Supreme Spirit (opp. कर्मन्); cf. ज्ञानयोग and कर्मयोग in Bg.3.3.
    -5 The organ of intelligence, sense, intellect; कच्चिज्ज्ञानानि सर्वाणि प्रसन्नानि तवाच्युत Mb.12.54.18.
    -6 Conscience.
    -7 The Supreme spirit.
    -8 An epithet of Viṣṇu.
    -9 The Vedas taken collectively.
    -1 Means of knowing; औत्पक्तिकस्तु शब्दस्यार्थेन सम्बन्धस्तस्य ज्ञानम्˚ । MS.1.1.5.
    -11 An opinion, a view; बलदेवस्य वाक्यं तु मम ज्ञाने न युज्यते Mb.5.4.3.
    -Comp. -अग्निः knowledge-fire; ज्ञानाग्निः सर्वकर्माणि भस्मसात्कुरुते$र्जन Bg.4.37.
    -अनुत्पादः ignorance, folly.
    -अपोहः forgetfulness.
    -अभ्यासः 1 study.
    -2 thinking, reflection.
    -आत्मन् a. all wise.
    -इन्द्रियम् an organ of perception; (these are five त्वच्, रसना, चक्षुस्, कर्ण and घ्राण- the skin, tongue, eye, ear and nose; see बुद्धीन्द्रिय under इन्द्रिय).
    -काण्डम् that inner or esoteric portion of Veda which refers to true spiritual knowledge, or know- ledge of the Supreme spirit, as distinguished from the knowledge of ceremonial rites (opp. कर्मकाण्ड).
    -कृत a. done knowingly or intentionally.
    -गम्य a. attainable by the understanding.
    -घन m. pure or mere know- ledge; निर्विशेषाय साम्याय नमो ज्ञानघनाय च Bhāg.8.3.12; तं त्वामहं ज्ञानघनं...कथं...परिभावयामि ibid 9.8.24.
    -चक्षुस् n. the eye of intelligence, the mind's eye, intellectual vision (opp. चर्मचक्षुस्); सर्वं तु समवेक्ष्येदं निखिलं ज्ञानचक्षुषा Ms.2.8;4.24. (-m.) a wise and learned man.
    -तत्त्वम् true knowledge, knowledge of God.
    -तपस् n. penance consisting in the acquisition of true knowledge.
    -दः a preceptor.
    -दा an epithet of Sarasvatī.
    -दुर्बल a. wanting in knowledge.
    -निश्चयः certainty, ascertain- ment.
    -निष्ठ a. intent on acquiring true (spiritual) knowledge; ज्ञानिनिष्ठा द्विजाः केचित् Ms.3.134.
    -पतिः 1 the Supreme spirit.
    -2 a teacher, preceptor.
    -पूर्व a. prece- ded by knowledge, well-considered; निष्कामं ज्ञानपूर्वं तु निवृत्तमुपदिश्यते Ms.12.89.
    -बोधिनी f. N. of a Vedāntic treatise.
    -मुद्र a. 'having the impress of wisdom', wise.
    -मूल a. founded on spiritual knowledge.
    -यज्ञः a man possessed of true or spiritual knowledge, philosopher.
    -योगः contemplation as the principal means of, attaining the Supreme spirit or acquiring true or spiritual knowledge; ज्ञानयोगेन सांख्यानां कर्मयोगेण योगिनाम् Bg.3.3.
    -लक्षणम्, -णा 1 indication, sign, a means of knowing or inferring.
    -2 (in logic) sign or proof of knowledge; subsequent derived from antecedent knowledge.
    -विज्ञानम् 1 sacred and miscellaneous knowledge; तत्प्राज्ञेन विनीतेन ज्ञानविज्ञानवेदिनाMs.18.41.
    -2 the Vedas with the supplementary branches of knowledge, such as medicine, arms &c.
    -वृद्ध advanced in knowledge; ज्ञानवृद्धो वयोबालो मृदुर्वीर्यगुणान्वितः Rām.2.45.8.
    -शास्त्रम् the science of fortune-telling.
    -साधनम् 1 a means of acquiring true or spiritual knowledge.
    -2 an organ of perception.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > ज्ञानम् _jñānam

  • 7 Cognitive Science

       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense.... [P]eople and intelligent computers turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       2) Experimental Psychology, Theoretical Linguistics, and Computational Simulation of Cognitive Processes Are All Components of Cognitive Science
       I went away from the Symposium with a strong conviction, more intuitive than rational, that human experimental psychology, theoretical linguistics, and computer simulation of cognitive processes were all pieces of a larger whole, and that the future would see progressive elaboration and coordination of their shared concerns.... I have been working toward a cognitive science for about twenty years beginning before I knew what to call it. (G. A. Miller, 1979, p. 9)
        Cognitive Science studies the nature of cognition in human beings, other animals, and inanimate machines (if such a thing is possible). While computers are helpful within cognitive science, they are not essential to its being. A science of cognition could still be pursued even without these machines.
        Computer Science studies various kinds of problems and the use of computers to solve them, without concern for the means by which we humans might otherwise resolve them. There could be no computer science if there were no machines of this kind, because they are indispensable to its being. Artificial Intelligence is a special branch of computer science that investigates the extent to which the mental powers of human beings can be captured by means of machines.
       There could be cognitive science without artificial intelligence but there could be no artificial intelligence without cognitive science. One final caveat: In the case of an emerging new discipline such as cognitive science there is an almost irresistible temptation to identify the discipline itself (as a field of inquiry) with one of the theories that inspired it (such as the computational conception...). This, however, is a mistake. The field of inquiry (or "domain") stands to specific theories as questions stand to possible answers. The computational conception should properly be viewed as a research program in cognitive science, where "research programs" are answers that continue to attract followers. (Fetzer, 1996, pp. xvi-xvii)
       What is the nature of knowledge and how is this knowledge used? These questions lie at the core of both psychology and artificial intelligence.
       The psychologist who studies "knowledge systems" wants to know how concepts are structured in the human mind, how such concepts develop, and how they are used in understanding and behavior. The artificial intelligence researcher wants to know how to program a computer so that it can understand and interact with the outside world. The two orientations intersect when the psychologist and the computer scientist agree that the best way to approach the problem of building an intelligent machine is to emulate the human conceptual mechanisms that deal with language.... The name "cognitive science" has been used to refer to this convergence of interests in psychology and artificial intelligence....
       This working partnership in "cognitive science" does not mean that psychologists and computer scientists are developing a single comprehensive theory in which people are no different from machines. Psychology and artificial intelligence have many points of difference in methods and goals.... We simply want to work on an important area of overlapping interest, namely a theory of knowledge systems. As it turns out, this overlap is substantial. For both people and machines, each in their own way, there is a serious problem in common of making sense out of what they hear, see, or are told about the world. The conceptual apparatus necessary to perform even a partial feat of understanding is formidable and fascinating. (Schank & Abelson, 1977, pp. 1-2)
       Within the last dozen years a general change in scientific outlook has occurred, consonant with the point of view represented here. One can date the change roughly from 1956: in psychology, by the appearance of Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin's Study of Thinking and George Miller's "The Magical Number Seven"; in linguistics, by Noam Chomsky's "Three Models of Language"; and in computer science, by our own paper on the Logic Theory Machine. (Newell & Simon, 1972, p. 4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Cognitive Science

  • 8 размышление

    thinking имя существительное:
    rumination (размышление, жевание жвачки)
    cogitation (размышление, обдумывание)
    словосочетание:

    Русско-английский синонимический словарь > размышление

  • 9 pohtia

    • study
    • weigh
    • reflect
    • reflect on
    • regard
    • scrutinise
    • sift
    • solve
    • speculate
    • survey
    • talk about
    • consult
    • talk over
    • think over
    • think
    • ventilate
    • reason
    • turn over
    • cogitate
    • debate
    • canvass
    • consider
    • pore over
    • contemplate
    • deliberate
    • discuss
    • meditate
    • moot point
    • mull over
    • philosophise
    • philosophize
    • be thinking
    • plan
    • ponder
    • examine

    Suomi-Englanti sanakirja > pohtia

  • 10 réflexion

    c black réflexion [ʀeflεksjɔ̃]
    feminine noun
       a. ( = méditation) thought
    • réflexion faite or à la réflexion, je reste on reflection, I'll stay
    • à la réflexion, on s'aperçoit que c'est faux when you think about it you can see that it's wrong
    • groupe or cellule or cercle de réflexion think tank
    • laissez-moi un délai or un temps de réflexion give me some time to think about it
    • après un temps de réflexion, il ajouta... after a moment's thought, he added...
    c black   b. ( = remarque) remark ; ( = idée) thought
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    ✎ Le mot anglais reflection se termine par - ction.
    * * *
    ʀeflɛksjɔ̃
    1) ( pensée) thought, reflection
    2) ( méditation) thinking, reflection

    réflexion faite or à la réflexion, je n'irai pas — on reflection ou on second thoughts, I won't go

    3) ( remarque) remark ( sur about), comment ( sur on)
    4) ( étude) study ( sur of)
    5) Physique reflection
    * * *
    ʀeflɛksjɔ̃
    1. nf
    1) (= pensée) reflection

    réflexion faite; à la réflexion — on reflection

    2) (= fait de penser) thought

    Elle est en pleine réflexion. — She's deep in thought.

    3) (= remarque) remark
    4) [lumière] reflection
    2. réflexions nfpl
    (= méditations) thoughts
    * * *
    1 ( pensée) thought (sur on), reflection (sur on); faire part de ses réflexions à qn to share one's thoughts with sb; inspirer des réflexions amères to give rise to bitter feelings;
    2 ( méditation) thinking (sur on), reflection (sur on); faire naître une réflexion nouvelle sur l'histoire to give rise to some fresh thinking on history; leur offre mérite réflexion their offer is worth thinking about; cela demande réflexion it needs ou requires thinking about; prendre le temps de la réflexion to take time to think; sans réflexion without thinking; réflexion faite or à la réflexion, je n'irai pas on reflection ou on second thoughts, I won't go; à la réflexion, on s'aperçoit que c'est absurde when you really think about it, you realize that it is absurd; après mûre réflexion after careful consideration, after much thought; donner matière à réflexion to be food for thought;
    3 ( remarque) remark (sur about), comment (sur on); faire des réflexions gén to make remarks; fais-nous grâce de tes réflexions spare us your comments; elle t'a fait une réflexion? did she say anything to you?; on m'a fait des réflexions sur votre attitude I've had complaints about your attitude; s'attirer des réflexions to attract criticism ou adverse comment; il a eu une réflexion bizarre/étonnante he said something odd/surprising; elle a des réflexions parfois! she says some funny things sometimes!;
    4 ( étude) study (sur of); document de réflexion discussion paper;
    5 Phys reflection.
    [reflɛksjɔ̃] nom féminin
    1. [méditation] thought
    après mûre réflexion after careful consideration, after much thought
    réflexion faite, à la réflexion on reflection
    2. [discernement]
    agir sans réflexion to act without thinking, to act thoughtlessly
    3. [remarque] remark, comment, reflection (soutenu)
    4. TECHNOLOGIE [de la lumière] reflection

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > réflexion

  • 11 занимавам

    1. occupy, interest
    въпросът, който ни занимава the question that interests/concerns us, the point at issue, the matter in hand
    няма да ви занимавам повече с това I won't take up any more of your time with this
    занимава ме мисълта за be thinking of, be contemplating (c ger.)
    това, което най-много ме занимава, е my greatest preoccupation is
    занимавам хората само със себе си talk about nothing but o.s.; monopolize people's attention; intrude o.'s problems on other people
    2. (обучавам) teach, instruct, tutor
    3. (забавлявам) entertain, attend to, mind
    занимавам децата keep the children amused
    занимавам се l. ( заемам се) see to, attend, take care of
    (проучвам въпрос и пр.) take up, go/look into, study, examine
    занимай се с гостите attend to/entertain/take care of the guests
    никой не се занимава с него nobody busies himself about/bothers about/attends to him
    занимай се с този въпрос take up/go into/look into this subject/question/matter; take care of/attend to this case/problem
    занимаваме се с този въпрос the question is under consideration/is being studied
    ще ви занимая с един важен въпрос I'll draw your attention to an important question
    граматиката не се занимава с този въпрос this question is not the concern of grammar, grammar does not deal with this type of question, this question is outside the scope of grammar
    преставам да се занимавам (с проблем и пр.) give up; relegate to the past
    4. (работя) be engaged (in), be concerned (with), have to do (with)
    (върша нещо) be occupied/busy with, be at, do
    (посвещавам се) devote oneself (to), take up, ( с увлечение) indulge in, go in for
    с какво се занимава баща му? what is his father? what is his father's trade/profession? what does his father do?
    с какво се занимаваш сега? what are you working on? what are yon doing now?
    занимава се с нещо в другата стая he doing s.th./working on s.th. in the other room
    точно с това се занимавам сега that's just what I am doing now, I am on the job now
    занимавам се с домакинство be a housewife, keep house
    занимавам се с политика be engaged in politics, go in for politics
    занимавам се с търговия run a business, be in business
    занимавам се с изкуство be an artist
    занимавам се със спорт go in for sports
    занимавам се с овощарство grow fruit
    не се занимавам с такива работи I do not concern myself with such matters; I have nothing to do with such matters
    занимавам се с глупости waste o.'s time
    5. (уча) study
    (преподавам) teach, coach, give lessons (to)
    остави го да се занимава let him get on with his lessons/work
    * * *
    занима̀вам,
    гл.
    1. occupy, interest; въпросът, който ни занимава the question that interests/concerns us, the point at issue, the matter in hand; занимава ме мисълта да be thinking of, be contemplating (с ger.); be flirting with the idea of; няма да ви \занимавам повече с това I won’t take up any more of your time with this; това, което най-много ме занимава, е my greatest preoccupation is;
    2. ( обучавам) teach, instruct, tutor;
    3. ( забавлявам) entertain, attend to, mind; \занимавам децата keep the children amused;
    \занимавам се 1. ( заемам се) see to, attend, take care of; ( проучвам въпрос и пр.) take up, go/look into, study, examine; граматиката не се занимава с този въпрос this question is not the concern of grammar, grammar does not deal with this type of question, this question is outside the scope of grammar; занимаваме се с този въпрос the question is under consideration/is being studied; никой не се занимава с него nobody busies himself about/bothers about/attends to him; преставам да се \занимавам (с проблем и пр.) give up; relegate to the past; ще ви занимая с един важен въпрос I’ll draw your attention to an important question;
    2. ( работя) be engaged (in), be concerned (with), have to do (with); ( върша нещо) be occupied/busy with, be at, do; ( посвещавам се) devote oneself (to), take up, engage in; (с увеличение) indulge in, go in for; \занимавам се с глупости waste o.’s time; \занимавам се с домакинство be a housewife, keep house; \занимавам се с изкуство be an artist; \занимавам се с овощарство grow fruit; \занимавам се с политика be engaged in politics, go in for politics; \занимавам се с търговия run a business, be in business; с какво се занимава баща му? what is his father’s trade/profession? what does his father do? точно с това се \занимавам сега that’s just what I am doing now, I am on the job now; трябва да се занимаваш със спорт you ought to take up sports;
    3. ( уча) study; ( преподавам) teach, coach, give lessons (to); остави го да се занимава let him get on with his lessons/work.
    * * *
    amuse; entertain; interest{`intirist}: the question that занимавамs us - въпросът, който ни занимава; preoccupy
    * * *
    1. (npoучвам въпрос и пр.) take up, go/look into, study, examine 2. (върша нещо) be occupied/busy with, be at, do 3. (забавлявам) entertain, attend to, mind 4. (обучавам) teach, instruct, tutor 5. (посвещавам се) devote oneself (to), take up, (с увлечение) indulge in, go in for 6. (преподавам) teach, coach, give lessons (to) 7. (работя) be engaged (in), be concerned (with), have to do (with) 8. (уча) study 9. occupy, interest 10. ЗАНИМАВАМ ce със спорт go in for sports 11. ЗАНИМАВАМ децата keep the children amused 12. ЗАНИМАВАМ сe l. (заемам се) see to, attend, take care of 13. ЗАНИМАВАМ се с глупости waste o.'s time 14. ЗАНИМАВАМ се с домакинство be a housеwife, keep house 15. ЗАНИМАВАМ се с изкуство be an artist 16. ЗАНИМАВАМ се с овощарство grow fruit 17. ЗАНИМАВАМ се с политика be engaged in politics, go in for politics 18. ЗАНИМАВАМ се с търговия run a business, be in business 19. ЗАНИМАВАМ хората само със себе си talk about nothing but o.s.;monopolize people's attention;intrude o.'s problems on other people 20. ЗАНИМАВАМе се с този въпрос the question is under consideration/is being studied 21. въпросът, който ни занимава the question that interests/concerns us, the point at issue, the matter in hand 22. граматиката не се занимава с този въпрос this question is not the concern of grammar, grammar does not deal with this type of question, this question is outside the scope of grammar 23. занимава ме мисълта за be interested in 24. занимава ме мисълта за be thinking of, be contemplating (c ger.) 25. занимава се с нещо в другата стая he doing s.th./working on s.th. in the other room 26. занимава се с опаковането на багажа he is busy (with the) packing, he is doing the packing 27. занимай се с гостите attend to/entertain/take care of the guests 28. занимай се с този въпрос take up/go into/look into this subject/question/matter;take care of/attend to this case/problem 29. не се занимавам с такива работи I do not concern myself with such matters;I have nothing to do with such matters 30. никой не се занимава с него nobody busies himself about/bothers about/attends to him 31. няма да ви ЗАНИМАВАМ повече с това I won't take up any more of your time with this 32. остави го да се занимава let him get on with his lessons/work 33. преставам да се ЗАНИМАВАМ (с проблем и пр.) give up;relegate to the past 34. с какво се занимава баща му? what is his father?what is his father's trade/profession?what does his father do? 35. с какво се занимаваш сега? what are you working on?what are yon doing now? 36. това, което най- много ме занимава, е my greatest preoccupation is 37. този въпрос не бива да ни занимава сега that question need not occupy us now 38. точно с това се ЗАНИМАВАМ сега that's just what I am doing now, I am on the job now 39. трябва да се занимаваш със спорт you ought to takе up sports 40. ще ви занимая с един важен въпрос I'll draw your attention to an important question

    Български-английски речник > занимавам

  • 12 БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ

    Мы приняли следующие сокращения для наиболее часто упоминаемых книг и журналов:
    IJP - International Journal of Psycho-analysis
    JAPA - Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association
    SE - Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, ed. James Strachey (London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 1953—74.)
    PSOC - Psychoanalytic Study of the Child (New Haven: Yale University Press)
    PQ - Psychoanalytic Quarterly
    WAF - The Writings of Anna Freud, ed. Anna Freud (New York: International Universities Press, 1966—74)
    PMC - Psychoanalysis The Major Concepts ed. Burness E. Moore and Bernard D. Fine (New Haven: Yale University Press)
    \
    О словаре: _about - Psychoanalytic Terms and Concepts
    \
    1. Abend, S. M. Identity. PMC. Forthcoming.
    2. Abend, S. M. (1974) Problems of identity. PQ, 43.
    3. Abend, S. M., Porder, M. S. & Willick, M. S. (1983) Borderline Patients. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    4. Abraham, K. (1916) The first pregenital stage of libido. Selected Papers. London, Hogarth Press, 1948.
    5. Abraham, K. (1917) Ejaculatio praecox. In: selected Papers. New York Basic Books.
    6. Abraham, K. (1921) Contributions to the theory of the anal character. Selected Papers. New York: Basic Books, 1953.
    7. Abraham, K. (1924) A Short study of the development of the libido, viewed in the light of mental disorders. In: Selected Papers. London: Hogarth Press, 1927.
    8. Abraham, K. (1924) Manic-depressive states and the pre-genital levels of the libido. In: Selected Papers. London: Hogarth Press, 1949.
    9. Abraham, K. (1924) Selected Papers. London: Hogarth Press, 1948.
    10. Abraham, K. (1924) The influence of oral erotism on character formation. Ibid.
    11. Abraham, K. (1925) The history of an impostor in the light of psychoanalytic knowledge. In: Clinical Papers and Essays on Psychoanalysis. New York: Basic Books, 1955, vol. 2.
    12. Abrams, S. (1971) The psychoanalytic unconsciousness. In: The Unconscious Today, ed. M. Kanzer. New York: Int. Univ. Press.
    13. Abrams, S. (1981) Insight. PSOC, 36.
    14. Abse, D W. (1985) The depressive character In Depressive States and their Treatment, ed. V. Volkan New York: Jason Aronson.
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    Словарь психоаналитических терминов и понятий > БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ

  • 13 set

    1.
    [set]transitive verb, -tt-, set
    1) (put) (horizontally) legen; (vertically) stellen

    set the proposals before the board — (fig.) dem Vorstand die Vorschläge unterbreiten od. vorlegen

    set something against something — (balance) etwas einer Sache (Dat.) gegenüberstellen

    2) (apply) setzen
    3) (adjust) einstellen (at auf + Akk.); aufstellen [Falle]; stellen [Uhr]

    set the alarm for 5.30 a.m. — den Wecker auf 5.30 Uhr stellen

    4)

    be set — (have location of action) [Buch, Film:] spielen

    set a book/film in Australia — ein Buch/einen Film in Australien spielen lassen

    5) (specify) festlegen [Bedingungen]; festsetzen [Termin, Ort usw.] ( for auf + Akk.)

    set the interest rate at 10 % — die Zinsen auf 10 % festsetzen

    6) (bring into specified state)

    set something/things right or in order — etwas/die Dinge in Ordnung bringen

    set somebody thinking that... — jemanden auf den Gedanken bringen, dass...

    7) (put forward) stellen [Frage, Aufgabe]; aufgeben [Hausaufgabe]; vorschreiben [Textbuch, Lektüre]; (compose) zusammenstellen [Rätsel, Fragen]

    set somebody a task/problem — jemandem eine Aufgabe stellen/jemanden vor ein Problem stellen

    set [somebody/oneself] a target — [jemandem/sich] ein Ziel setzen

    8) (turn to solid) fest werden lassen
    9) (lay for meal) decken [Tisch]; auflegen [Gedeck]
    10) (establish) aufstellen [Rekord, Richtlinien]
    11) (Med.): (put into place) [ein]richten; einrenken [verrenktes Gelenk]
    12) (fix) legen [Haare]

    set eyes on somebody/something — jemanden/etwas sehen

    13) (Printing) setzen
    14)
    15)

    be set on a hill — [Haus:] auf einem Hügel stehen

    2. intransitive verb,
    -tt-, set
    1) (solidify) fest werden
    2) (go down) [Sonne, Mond:] untergehen
    3. noun
    1) (group) Satz, der

    set [of two] — Paar, das

    chess set — Schachspiel, das

    2) see academic.ru/66102/service">service 1. 9)
    3) (section of society) Kreis, der
    4) (Math.) Menge, die
    5)

    set [of teeth] — Gebiss, das

    6) (radio or TV receiver) Gerät, das; Apparat, der
    7) (Tennis) Satz, der
    8) (of hair) Frisieren, das; Einlegen, das
    9) (Cinemat., film): (built-up scenery) Szenenaufbau, der; Dekoration, die
    10) (acting area for film)
    4. adjective
    1) (fixed) starr [Linie, Gewohnheit, Blick, Lächeln]; fest [Absichten, Zielvorstellungen, Zeitpunkt]

    be set in one's ways or habits — in seinen Gewohnheiten festgefahren sein

    2) (assigned for study) vorgeschrieben [Buch, Text]
    3) (according to fixed menu)

    set meal or menu — Menü, das

    4) (ready)

    be/get set for something — zu etwas bereit sein/sich zu etwas fertig machen

    be/get set to leave — bereit sein/sich fertig machen zum Aufbruch

    all set? — (coll.) alles klar od. fertig?

    be all set to do something — bereit sein, etwas zu tun

    be set on something/doing something — zu etwas entschlossen sein/entschlossen sein, etwas zu tun

    be [dead] set against something — [absolut] gegen etwas sein

    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    [set] 1. present participle - setting; verb
    1) (to put or place: She set the tray down on the table.) stellen, legen, setzen
    2) (to put plates, knives, forks etc on (a table) for a meal: Please would you set the table for me?) decken
    3) (to settle or arrange (a date, limit, price etc): It's difficult to set a price on a book when you don't know its value.) festlegen
    4) (to give a person (a task etc) to do: The witch set the prince three tasks; The teacher set a test for her pupils; He should set the others a good example.) stellen
    5) (to cause to start doing something: His behaviour set people talking.) veranlassen
    6) ((of the sun etc) to disappear below the horizon: It gets cooler when the sun sets.) untergehen
    7) (to become firm or solid: Has the concrete set?) festwerden
    8) (to adjust (eg a clock or its alarm) so that it is ready to perform its function: He set the alarm for 7.00 a.m.) einstellen
    9) (to arrange (hair) in waves or curls.) herrichten
    10) (to fix in the surface of something, eg jewels in a ring.) fassen
    11) (to put (broken bones) into the correct position for healing: They set his broken arm.) richten
    2. adjective
    1) (fixed or arranged previously: There is a set procedure for doing this.) das Set
    2) ((often with on) ready, intending or determined (to do something): He is set on going.)
    3) (deliberate: He had the set intention of hurting her.) wohlüberlegt
    4) (stiff; fixed: He had a set smile on his face.) starr
    5) (not changing or developing: set ideas.) fest
    6) ((with with) having something set in it: a gold ring set with diamonds.) eingefaßt
    3. noun
    1) (a group of things used or belonging together: a set of carving tools; a complete set of (the novels of) Jane Austen.) der Satz
    2) (an apparatus for receiving radio or television signals: a television/radio set.) das Gerät
    3) (a group of people: the musical set.) der Kreis
    4) (the process of setting hair: a shampoo and set.) das Legen
    5) (scenery for a play or film: There was a very impressive set in the final act.) der Szenenaufbau
    6) (a group of six or more games in tennis: She won the first set and lost the next two.) der Satz
    •
    - setting
    - setback
    - set phrase
    - set-square
    - setting-lotion
    - set-to
    - set-up
    - all set
    - set about
    - set someone against someone
    - set against someone
    - set someone against
    - set against
    - set aside
    - set back
    - set down
    - set in
    - set off
    - set something or someone on someone
    - set on someone
    - set something or someone on
    - set on
    - set out
    - set to
    - set up
    - set up camp
    - set up house
    - set up shop
    - set upon
    * * *
    [set]
    1. pred (ready) bereit, fertig
    ▪ to be [all] \set [for sth] [für etw akk] bereit sein
    be \set to leave by 8 a.m. um 8 Uhr solltest du startklar sein
    to get \set to do sth sich akk darauf vorbereiten, etw zu tun
    ready, get \set, go! auf die Plätze, fertig, los!
    we were just getting \set to leave when... wir wollten gerade gehen, als...
    2. (fixed) pattern, time fest[gesetzt]
    \set expression [or phrase] feststehender Ausdruck
    \set meal Stammessen nt, Stammgericht nt ÖSTERR; (dish of the day) Tagesgericht nt
    \set menu Tageskarte f
    \set price Festpreis m, Fixpreis m
    at \set times zu festen Zeiten
    3. (expression of face) starr
    her face took on a \set expression ihre Miene erstarrte
    \set smile aufgesetztes Lächeln
    4. (unlikely to change)
    to have a \set idea about sth eine feste Vorstellung von etw dat haben
    to have become a \set habit zur festen Gewohnheit geworden sein
    to be \set in one's ways in seinen Gewohnheiten festgefahren sein
    5. (likely)
    Manchester United looks \set for victory es sieht ganz so aus, als würde Manchester United gewinnen
    the rain is \set to continue all week der Regen wird wohl noch die ganze Woche andauern
    6. attr, inv (assigned) number, pattern vorgegebene(r, s); subject also bestimmte(r, s)
    \set book [or text] Pflichtlektüre
    ▪ to be [dead] \set against sth [vollkommen] gegen etw akk sein
    ▪ to be [dead] \set on sth zu etw akk [wild] entschlossen sein
    II. NOUN
    1. (collection, group) of glasses, stamps etc. Satz m; (of two items) Paar nt; of clothes etc. Set nt, Garnitur f
    he's got a complete \set of Joyce's novels er hat eine Gesamtausgabe von Joyce
    box[ed] \set Box-Set nt (ein komplettes Set etwa von CDs oder Videokassetten, das in einem Schuber o.Ä. erhältlich ist)
    chemistry \set Chemiekasten m
    chess \set Schachspiel nt
    a \set of chromosomes ein Chromosomensatz m
    \set of encyclopaedias Enzyklopädiereihe f
    \set of lectures Vortragsreihe f
    \set of rules Regelwerk nt
    tea \set Teeservice nt
    \set of teeth Gebiss nt
    tool \set Werkzeugsatz m
    \set of twins Zwillingspaar nt
    2. + sing/pl vb (group of people) [Personen]kreis m, Clique f fam
    she's got in with a very arty \set sie bewegt sich neuerdings in sehr ausgewählten Künstlerkreisen
    the fashion \set die Modefreaks pl sl
    the literary \set die Literaten pl
    the smart \set die Schickeria meist pej
    3. BRIT SCH (class) Kurs f
    4. THEAT Bühnenbild nt, Bühnenausstattung f; FILM Szenenaufbau m; (film location) Drehort m
    on the \set bei den Dreharbeiten; (location) am Set
    5. (appliance) Gerät nt; (television) Fernsehgerät nt, Fernseher m; (radio) Radio[gerät] nt
    colour \set Farbfernseher m
    an electric fondue \set ein elektrisches Fonduegerät
    6. SPORT Satz m
    to win a \set einen Satz gewinnen
    7. MATH Menge f
    \set theory Mengenlehre f
    8. MUS Block m
    data \set Datensatz m; (file) Datei f
    10. TYPO (width of character) Set nt o m fachspr
    11. BOT (young plant) Setzling m; (bulb) Knolle f
    12. (coat of plaster) Feinputz m
    13. (sett) Bau m
    14. no pl of eyes, jaw Stellung f; of shoulders Haltung f
    15. no pl (hair arrangement)
    to have a shampoo and \set sich dat die Haare waschen und legen lassen
    16. no pl see mindset
    17. no pl of the current, tide Richtung f, Lauf m
    18. no pl AUS, NZ ( fam: grudge)
    to get a \set on sb [die] Wut auf jdn kriegen fam
    19. no pl HUNT Vorstehen nt fachspr
    21. no pl TECH (in metal, wood, etc.) Durchbiegung f fachspr
    22.
    ▶ to make a \set at sb BRIT sich akk an jdn ranmachen fam
    <set, set>
    ▪ to \set sb/sth somewhere jdn/etw irgendwohin stellen; (on its side) jdn/etw irgendwohin legen
    the cat \set a dead mouse in front of us die Katze legte uns eine tote Maus vor
    \set the bricks one on top of the other setze einen Klotz auf den anderen
    to \set a chair by the bed/window einen Stuhl ans Bett/Fenster stellen
    to \set sb on his/her way ( fig) jdn losschicken
    I \set her above all others für mich ist sie die Allergrößte
    2. usu passive (take place in, be located)
    ▪ to be \set somewhere:
    ‘West Side Story’ is \set in New York ‚West Side Story‘ spielt in New York
    their house is \set on a hill ihr Haus liegt auf einem Hügel
    the novel is \set in the 16th century der Roman spielt im 16. Jahrhundert
    3. (cause to be, start)
    to \set a boat afloat ein Boot zu Wasser lassen
    to \set sth on fire etw in Brand setzen
    to \set sth in motion etw in Bewegung setzen [o fig a. ins Rollen bringen]
    ▪ to \set sb doing sth jdn veranlassen [o dazu bringen], etw zu tun
    his remarks \set me thinking seine Bemerkungen gaben mir zu denken
    to \set sb loose [or free] jdn freilassen [o auf freien Fuß setzen]
    to \set sth right etw [wieder] in Ordnung bringen
    to \set sb straight jdn berichtigen
    these changes will \set the country on the road to economic recovery diese Änderungen werden das Land zum wirtschaftlichen Aufschwung führen
    the noise \set the dog barking wegen des Lärms fing der Hund an zu bellen
    to \set sth free etw freisetzen
    5. (adjust, prepare)
    ▪ to \set sth etw einstellen; (prepare) etw vorbereiten
    to \set the alarm for 7.00 a.m. den Wecker auf 07.00 Uhr stellen
    to \set a clock/watch eine Uhr/Armbanduhr stellen
    to \set the margin TYPO den Rand einstellen
    to \set the table den Tisch decken
    to \set a thermostat/timer einen Thermostat/Zeitmesser einstellen
    to \set a trap eine Falle aufstellen
    ▪ to \set sth etw festsetzen
    to \set the budget das Budget festlegen
    to \set a date/time einen Termin/eine Zeit ausmachen
    they still haven't \set a date for their wedding sie haben immer noch keinen Termin für die Hochzeit festgesetzt
    to \set a deadline for sb jdm eine Frist setzen
    to \set oneself a goal sich dat ein Ziel setzen
    to \set a limit eine Grenze setzen
    to \set a norm eine Norm festlegen
    to \set a price [on sth] einen Preis [für etw akk] festsetzen
    to \set one's teeth die Zähne zusammenbeißen
    ... she said, \setting her jaw firmly... sagte sie mit versteinerter Miene
    to \set a good example to sb jdm ein Vorbild sein
    to \set the pace das Tempo angeben [o bestimmen]
    to \set a record einen Rekord aufstellen
    8. ANAT
    ▪ to \set sth etw einrenken
    to \set a broken bone einen gebrochenen Knochen einrichten fachspr
    to \set sb's hair jdm die Haare legen
    to have one's hair \set sich dat die Haare legen lassen
    10. (adorn)
    ▪ to \set sth with sth etw mit etw dat besetzen
    a watch \set with sapphires eine mit Saphiren besetzte Uhr
    11. (insert)
    ▪ to \set sth in[to] sth etw in etw akk einlassen [o fassen]
    a bracelet with rubies \set in gold ein Armband mit in Gold gefassten Rubinen
    12. MUS
    to \set a poem/words etc. to music ein Gedicht/einen Text etc. vertonen
    13. esp BRIT, AUS (assign)
    to \set sb in charge of sth jdn mit etw dat betrauen
    to \set homework Hausaufgaben [o ÖSTERR a. eine Hausübung] aufgeben
    to \set a task for sb [or sb a task] jdm eine Aufgabe stellen
    to \set sb to work jdm Arbeit zuweisen
    14. COMPUT
    ▪ to \set sth (give variable a value) etw setzen; (define value) etw einstellen
    to \set a text einen Text setzen
    to be \set in Times Roman in Times Roman gesetzt sein
    16. (keep watch on)
    to \set a guard on sb jdn bewachen lassen
    17.
    to \set the scene [or stage] for sth (create conditions) die Bedingungen für etw akk schaffen; (facilitate) den Weg für etw akk frei machen
    the scene is \set for the summit next week die Vorbereitungen für das Gipfeltreffen nächste Woche sind unter Dach und Fach
    18. (sail)
    to \set course for sth auf etw akk Kurs nehmen
    to \set sail ( also fig) die Segel setzen
    to \set sail for/from... nach/von... losfahren
    19. (see)
    to \set eyes on sb/sth jdn/etw sehen
    20. (enter)
    to \set foot in [or on] sth etw betreten
    21. (calm)
    to \set one's mind at ease sich akk beruhigen
    22.
    to \set one's mind to [or on] sth (concentrate on) sich akk auf etw akk konzentrieren; (approach with determination) etw entschlossen angehen
    23.
    ▶ to \set the world [or the Thames] ablaze [or on fire] [or alight] die Welt aus den Angeln heben
    <set, set>
    1. (grow together) bones, limbs zusammenwachsen
    2. (become firm) concrete, jelly fest werden
    the glue has \set hard der Klebstoff ist ausgehärtet
    3. (sink) moon, sun untergehen
    4. (have a specified direction) river, stream
    to \set to the north/westwards nach Norden/Westen verlaufen
    5. HUNT dog vorstehen fachspr
    6. (become fixed) eyes verharren; features sich akk versteinern
    7. BOT Frucht ansetzen
    * * *
    (INTERNET) abbr SET m
    * * *
    set [set]
    A s
    1. Satz m (Briefmarken, Dokumente, Werkzeuge etc), (Möbel-, Toiletten- etc) Garnitur f, (Speise- etc) Service n:
    a set of agreements POL ein Vertragswerk;
    a set of colo(u)rs ein Farbensortiment n;
    a set of drills ein Satz Bohrer;
    set of values Wertanschauung f
    2. (Häuser- etc) Gruppe f, (Zimmer) Flucht f:
    a set of houses (rooms)
    3. WIRTSCH Kollektion f
    4. Sammlung f, besonders
    a) mehrbändige Ausgabe (eines Autors)
    b) (Schriften) Reihe f, (Artikel) Serie f
    5. TECH
    a) (Maschinen) Satz m, (-)Anlage f, Aggregat n
    b) RADIO etc Gerät n, Apparat m
    6. a) THEAT Bühnenausstattung f
    b) FILM Szenenaufbau m
    7. Tennis etc: Satz m
    8. MATH
    a) Zahlenreihe f
    b) Menge f
    9. set of teeth Gebiss n
    10. (Personen)Kreis m:
    a) Gesellschaft(sschicht) f, (literarische etc) Welt
    b) pej Clique f
    c) SCHULE Unterrichtsgruppe f:
    the chic set die Schickeria
    11. Sitz m, Schnitt m (von Kleidern)
    12. a) Form f
    b) Haltung f
    13. Richtung f, (Ver)Lauf m (einer Strömung etc):
    the set of public opinion der Meinungstrend
    14. fig Neigung f, Tendenz f ( beide:
    toward[s] zu)
    15. PSYCH (innere) Bereitschaft ( for zu)
    16. (Sonnen- etc) Untergang m:
    the set of day poet das Tagesende
    17. TECH Schränkung f (einer Säge)
    18. TECH → setting 10
    19. ARCH Feinputz m
    20. BOT
    a) Ableger m, Setzling m
    b) Fruchtansatz m
    a) Tänzer(zahl) pl(f), -paare pl
    b) Tour f, Hauptfigur f:
    first set Quadrille f
    22. MUS Serie f, Folge f, Zyklus m
    23. JAGD Vorstehen n (des Hundes):
    a) jemanden scharf aufs Korn nehmen umg, herfallen über jemanden,
    b) es auf einen Mann abgesehen haben (Frau)
    24. JAGD (Dachs- etc) Bau m
    B adj
    1. festgesetzt (Tag etc):
    set meal Menü n
    2. a) bereit
    b) fest entschlossen (on, upon doing zu tun):
    all set startklar;
    be all set for vorbereitet oder eingestellt sein auf (akk)
    3. vorgeschrieben, festgelegt (Regeln etc):
    set books pl ( oder reading) SCHULE Pflichtlektüre f
    4. wohlüberlegt, einstudiert (Rede etc)
    5. feststehend (Redewendungen etc)
    6. fest (Meinung): → purpose Bes Redew
    7. starr:
    a set face ein unbewegtes Gesicht
    8. US halsstarrig, stur
    9. konventionell, formell (Party etc)
    10. zusammengebissen (Zähne)
    11. (ein)gefasst (Edelstein)
    12. TECH eingebaut (Rohr etc)
    13. set fair beständig (auf dem Barometer)
    14. → hard-set
    15. (in Zusammensetzungen) … gebaut, … gestaltet:
    well-set gut gebaut
    C v/t prät und pperf set
    1. setzen, stellen, legen:
    set the glass to one’s lips das Glas an die Lippen setzen;
    set a match to ein Streichholz halten an (akk), etwas in Brand stecken (siehe a. die Verbindungen mit anderen entsprechenden Substantiven)
    2. in einen Zustand (ver)setzen, bringen:
    set sb free jemanden auf freien Fuß setzen, jemanden freilassen; → ease A 2, liberty Bes Redew, right A 5, B 5, etc
    3. veranlassen zu:
    set a party laughing eine Gesellschaft zum Lachen bringen;
    set going in Gang setzen;
    a) jemanden nachdenklich machen, jemandem zu denken geben,
    b) jemandem Denkanstöße oder einen Denkanstoß geben; → roar C 1
    4. ein-, herrichten, (an)ordnen, zurechtmachen, besonders
    a) THEAT die Bühne aufbauen, (Skisport) die Strecke abstecken
    b) den Tisch decken
    c) TECH (ein)stellen, (-)richten, regulieren
    d) die Uhr, den Wecker stellen (by nach dem Radio etc):
    set the alarm (clock) for five o’clock den Wecker auf 5 Uhr stellen
    e) eine Säge schränken
    f) ein Messer abziehen, schärfen
    g) MED einen Bruch, Knochen (ein)richten
    h) das Haar legen
    5. MUS
    a) vertonen
    b) arrangieren
    6. TYPO absetzen
    7. AGR
    a) Setzlinge (an)pflanzen
    b) den Boden bepflanzen
    8. a) die Bruthenne setzen
    b) Eier unterlegen
    9. a) einen Edelstein (ein)fassen
    b) mit Edelsteinen etc besetzen
    10. eine Wache aufstellen
    11. eine Aufgabe, Frage stellen
    12. jemanden anweisen ( to do sth etwas zu tun), jemanden an eine Sache setzen
    13. a) etwas vorschreiben, bestimmen
    b) einen Zeitpunkt festlegen, -setzen, ansetzen
    c) ein Beispiel etc geben, eine Regel etc aufstellen
    d) einen Rekord aufstellen: → fashion A 1, pace1 A 1
    14. einen Hund etc hetzen (on auf jemanden):
    set spies on sb jemanden bespitzeln lassen, auf jemanden Spitzel ansetzen
    15. Flüssiges fest werden lassen, Milch gerinnen lassen
    16. die Zähne zusammenbeißen
    17. den Wert bestimmen, festsetzen
    18. einen Preis aussetzen (on auf akk)
    19. Geld, sein Leben etc riskieren, aufs Spiel setzen
    20. fig legen, setzen:
    set one’s hopes on seine Hoffnung setzen auf (akk);
    the scene is set in Rome der Schauplatz oder Ort der Handlung ist Rom, das Stück etc spielt in Rom;
    the novel is set in Spain der Roman spielt in Spanien
    D v/i
    1. untergehen (Sonne etc):
    his star has set fig sein Stern ist untergegangen
    2. a) auswachsen (Körper)
    b) ausreifen (Charakter)
    3. beständig werden (Wetter etc): → B 13
    4. a) fest werden (Flüssiges), erstarren (auch Gesicht, Muskel)
    b) TECH abbinden (Zement etc)
    c) gerinnen (Milch)
    d) sich absetzen (Rahm)
    5. brüten (Glucke)
    6. gut etc sitzen (Kleidungsstück)
    7. fig passen ( with zu)
    8. sich bewegen, fließen, strömen:
    the current sets to the north die Stromrichtung ist Nord
    9. wehen, kommen ( from aus, von) (Wind)
    10. sich neigen oder richten:
    opinion is setting against him die Meinung richtet sich gegen ihn
    11. BOT Frucht ansetzen (Blüte, Baum)
    12. ZOOL sich festsetzen (Austern)
    13. TECH sich verbiegen
    14. JAGD vorstehen (Hund)
    15. MED sich einrenken
    s. abk
    1. second ( seconds pl) s, Sek.
    3. see s.
    5. set
    6. HIST Br shilling ( shillings pl)
    7. sign
    8. signed gez.
    9. singular Sg.
    10. son
    * * *
    1.
    [set]transitive verb, -tt-, set

    set the proposals before the board — (fig.) dem Vorstand die Vorschläge unterbreiten od. vorlegen

    set something against something — (balance) etwas einer Sache (Dat.) gegenüberstellen

    2) (apply) setzen
    3) (adjust) einstellen (at auf + Akk.); aufstellen [Falle]; stellen [Uhr]

    set the alarm for 5.30 a.m. — den Wecker auf 5.30 Uhr stellen

    4)

    be set — (have location of action) [Buch, Film:] spielen

    set a book/film in Australia — ein Buch/einen Film in Australien spielen lassen

    5) (specify) festlegen [Bedingungen]; festsetzen [Termin, Ort usw.] ( for auf + Akk.)

    set the interest rate at 10 % — die Zinsen auf 10 % festsetzen

    set something/things right or in order — etwas/die Dinge in Ordnung bringen

    set somebody thinking that... — jemanden auf den Gedanken bringen, dass...

    7) (put forward) stellen [Frage, Aufgabe]; aufgeben [Hausaufgabe]; vorschreiben [Textbuch, Lektüre]; (compose) zusammenstellen [Rätsel, Fragen]

    set somebody a task/problem — jemandem eine Aufgabe stellen/jemanden vor ein Problem stellen

    set [somebody/oneself] a target — [jemandem/sich] ein Ziel setzen

    8) (turn to solid) fest werden lassen
    9) (lay for meal) decken [Tisch]; auflegen [Gedeck]
    10) (establish) aufstellen [Rekord, Richtlinien]
    11) (Med.): (put into place) [ein]richten; einrenken [verrenktes Gelenk]
    12) (fix) legen [Haare]

    set eyes on somebody/something — jemanden/etwas sehen

    13) (Printing) setzen
    14)
    15)

    be set on a hill — [Haus:] auf einem Hügel stehen

    2. intransitive verb,
    -tt-, set
    1) (solidify) fest werden
    2) (go down) [Sonne, Mond:] untergehen
    3. noun
    1) (group) Satz, der

    set [of two] — Paar, das

    chess set — Schachspiel, das

    2) see service 1. 9)
    3) (section of society) Kreis, der
    4) (Math.) Menge, die
    5)

    set [of teeth] — Gebiss, das

    6) (radio or TV receiver) Gerät, das; Apparat, der
    7) (Tennis) Satz, der
    8) (of hair) Frisieren, das; Einlegen, das
    9) (Cinemat., film): (built-up scenery) Szenenaufbau, der; Dekoration, die
    4. adjective
    1) (fixed) starr [Linie, Gewohnheit, Blick, Lächeln]; fest [Absichten, Zielvorstellungen, Zeitpunkt]

    be set in one's ways or habits — in seinen Gewohnheiten festgefahren sein

    2) (assigned for study) vorgeschrieben [Buch, Text]

    set meal or menu — Menü, das

    be/get set for something — zu etwas bereit sein/sich zu etwas fertig machen

    be/get set to leave — bereit sein/sich fertig machen zum Aufbruch

    all set? — (coll.) alles klar od. fertig?

    be all set to do something — bereit sein, etwas zu tun

    be set on something/doing something — zu etwas entschlossen sein/entschlossen sein, etwas zu tun

    be [dead] set against something — [absolut] gegen etwas sein

    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    (sport) n.
    Satz ¨-e m. adj.
    festgelegt adj.
    festgesetzt adj. n.
    Garnitur -en f.
    Menge -n (Mathematik) f.
    Reihe -n f.
    Zusammenstellung f. v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: set)
    = aufstellen v.
    einstellen v.
    erstarren v.
    fest werden ausdr.
    festlegen v.
    festsetzen v.
    legen v.
    setzen v.
    stellen v.
    veranlassen v.

    English-german dictionary > set

  • 14 Psychology

       We come therefore now to that knowledge whereunto the ancient oracle directeth us, which is the knowledge of ourselves; which deserveth the more accurate handling, by how much it toucheth us more nearly. This knowledge, as it is the end and term of natural philosophy in the intention of man, so notwithstanding it is but a portion of natural philosophy in the continent of nature.... [W]e proceed to human philosophy or Humanity, which hath two parts: the one considereth man segregate, or distributively; the other congregate, or in society. So as Human philosophy is either Simple and Particular, or Conjugate and Civil. Humanity Particular consisteth of the same parts whereof man consisteth; that is, of knowledges which respect the Body, and of knowledges that respect the Mind... how the one discloseth the other and how the one worketh upon the other... [:] the one is honored with the inquiry of Aristotle, and the other of Hippocrates. (Bacon, 1878, pp. 236-237)
       The claims of Psychology to rank as a distinct science are... not smaller but greater than those of any other science. If its phenomena are contemplated objectively, merely as nervo-muscular adjustments by which the higher organisms from moment to moment adapt their actions to environing co-existences and sequences, its degree of specialty, even then, entitles it to a separate place. The moment the element of feeling, or consciousness, is used to interpret nervo-muscular adjustments as thus exhibited in the living beings around, objective Psychology acquires an additional, and quite exceptional, distinction. (Spencer, 1896, p. 141)
       Kant once declared that psychology was incapable of ever raising itself to the rank of an exact natural science. The reasons that he gives... have often been repeated in later times. In the first place, Kant says, psychology cannot become an exact science because mathematics is inapplicable to the phenomena of the internal sense; the pure internal perception, in which mental phenomena must be constructed,-time,-has but one dimension. In the second place, however, it cannot even become an experimental science, because in it the manifold of internal observation cannot be arbitrarily varied,-still less, another thinking subject be submitted to one's experiments, comformably to the end in view; moreover, the very fact of observation means alteration of the observed object. (Wundt, 1904, p. 6)
       It is [Gustav] Fechner's service to have found and followed the true way; to have shown us how a "mathematical psychology" may, within certain limits, be realized in practice.... He was the first to show how Herbart's idea of an "exact psychology" might be turned to practical account. (Wundt, 1904, pp. 6-7)
       "Mind," "intellect," "reason," "understanding," etc. are concepts... that existed before the advent of any scientific psychology. The fact that the naive consciousness always and everywhere points to internal experience as a special source of knowledge, may, therefore, be accepted for the moment as sufficient testimony to the rights of psychology as science.... "Mind," will accordingly be the subject, to which we attribute all the separate facts of internal observation as predicates. The subject itself is determined p. 17) wholly and exclusively by its predicates. (Wundt, 1904,
       The study of animal psychology may be approached from two different points of view. We may set out from the notion of a kind of comparative physiology of mind, a universal history of the development of mental life in the organic world. Or we may make human psychology the principal object of investigation. Then, the expressions of mental life in animals will be taken into account only so far as they throw light upon the evolution of consciousness in man.... Human psychology... may confine itself altogether to man, and generally has done so to far too great an extent. There are plenty of psychological text-books from which you would hardly gather that there was any other conscious life than the human. (Wundt, 1907, pp. 340-341)
       The Behaviorist began his own formulation of the problem of psychology by sweeping aside all medieval conceptions. He dropped from his scientific vocabulary all subjective terms such as sensation, perception, image, desire, purpose, and even thinking and emotion as they were subjectively defined. (Watson, 1930, pp. 5-6)
       According to the medieval classification of the sciences, psychology is merely a chapter of special physics, although the most important chapter; for man is a microcosm; he is the central figure of the universe. (deWulf, 1956, p. 125)
       At the beginning of this century the prevailing thesis in psychology was Associationism.... Behavior proceeded by the stream of associations: each association produced its successors, and acquired new attachments with the sensations arriving from the environment.
       In the first decade of the century a reaction developed to this doctrine through the work of the Wurzburg school. Rejecting the notion of a completely self-determining stream of associations, it introduced the task ( Aufgabe) as a necessary factor in describing the process of thinking. The task gave direction to thought. A noteworthy innovation of the Wurzburg school was the use of systematic introspection to shed light on the thinking process and the contents of consciousness. The result was a blend of mechanics and phenomenalism, which gave rise in turn to two divergent antitheses, Behaviorism and the Gestalt movement. The behavioristic reaction insisted that introspection was a highly unstable, subjective procedure.... Behaviorism reformulated the task of psychology as one of explaining the response of organisms as a function of the stimuli impinging upon them and measuring both objectively. However, Behaviorism accepted, and indeed reinforced, the mechanistic assumption that the connections between stimulus and response were formed and maintained as simple, determinate functions of the environment.
       The Gestalt reaction took an opposite turn. It rejected the mechanistic nature of the associationist doctrine but maintained the value of phenomenal observation. In many ways it continued the Wurzburg school's insistence that thinking was more than association-thinking has direction given to it by the task or by the set of the subject. Gestalt psychology elaborated this doctrine in genuinely new ways in terms of holistic principles of organization.
       Today psychology lives in a state of relatively stable tension between the poles of Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology.... (Newell & Simon, 1963, pp. 279-280)
       As I examine the fate of our oppositions, looking at those already in existence as guide to how they fare and shape the course of science, it seems to me that clarity is never achieved. Matters simply become muddier and muddier as we go down through time. Thus, far from providing the rungs of a ladder by which psychology gradually climbs to clarity, this form of conceptual structure leads rather to an ever increasing pile of issues, which we weary of or become diverted from, but never really settle. (Newell, 1973b, pp. 288-289)
       The subject matter of psychology is as old as reflection. Its broad practical aims are as dated as human societies. Human beings, in any period, have not been indifferent to the validity of their knowledge, unconcerned with the causes of their behavior or that of their prey and predators. Our distant ancestors, no less than we, wrestled with the problems of social organization, child rearing, competition, authority, individual differences, personal safety. Solving these problems required insights-no matter how untutored-into the psychological dimensions of life. Thus, if we are to follow the convention of treating psychology as a young discipline, we must have in mind something other than its subject matter. We must mean that it is young in the sense that physics was young at the time of Archimedes or in the sense that geometry was "founded" by Euclid and "fathered" by Thales. Sailing vessels were launched long before Archimedes discovered the laws of bouyancy [ sic], and pillars of identical circumference were constructed before anyone knew that C IID. We do not consider the ship builders and stone cutters of antiquity physicists and geometers. Nor were the ancient cave dwellers psychologists merely because they rewarded the good conduct of their children. The archives of folk wisdom contain a remarkable collection of achievements, but craft-no matter how perfected-is not science, nor is a litany of successful accidents a discipline. If psychology is young, it is young as a scientific discipline but it is far from clear that psychology has attained this status. (Robinson, 1986, p. 12)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Psychology

  • 15 contemplar

    v.
    1 to contemplate, to consider.
    está contemplando presentar la dimisión she is considering handing in her resignation
    la ley contempla varios supuestos the law provides for o covers various cases
    esta propuesta no contempla los ingresos por publicidad this proposal doesn't take into account income from advertising
    Juana contemplaba la luna a solas Johanna contemplated the moon alone.
    María contempla grandes utilidades Mary envisages big profits.
    2 to look at, to contemplate (paisaje, monumento).
    3 to examine.
    El maestro contempló el cuadro de María The teacher examined Ann's picture.
    4 to have provision for, to contemplate, to have provisions for.
    María contempla los tiempos venideros Mary has provisions for upcoming times.
    * * *
    1 (mirar) to contemplate, look at
    2 (pensar) to contemplate, consider
    3 (tener en cuenta) to provide for
    4 (tratar bien) to spoil
    1 to contemplate
    * * *
    verb
    * * *
    1. VT
    1) (=observar) [+ paisaje, edificio, cuadro] to gaze at, contemplate

    contemplaba su imagen en el espejo — she gazed at o contemplated her reflection in the mirror

    pude contemplar la belleza de Elena — frm I was able to look on Elena's beauty

    2) (=analizar)

    debemos contemplar su obra desde otra perspectiva — we must look at o consider his work from another perspective

    3) (=mimar) to indulge
    4) frm (=considerar) [+ idea, posibilidad] to consider
    5) [ley, tratado] to provide for

    el acuerdo contempla una subida del 3% — the agreement provides for an increase of 3%

    2.
    VI (Rel) to meditate
    * * *
    verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) <paisaje/cuadro> to gaze at, contemplate
    b) <obra/artista> to examine, study
    c) <posibilidad/idea> to consider

    la nueva propuesta contempla un aumento del 5% — the new proposal envisages the possibility of a 5% rise

    2) (Esp) ( mimar) to spoil
    * * *
    = allow for, cater for/to, envisage, envision, provide, gaze, behold.
    Ex. It also allows for and identifies three levels of detail which might be adopted in descriptive cataloguing.
    Ex. Labelling of subjects presents problems mainly because, in order to achieve a user-orientated approach, the various approaches of different users must be catered for.
    Ex. It is fairly common to have to modify a standard list, or compile a fresh list when a new application is envisaged.
    Ex. Let me further specify the requirements of the catalog envisioned by the Paris Principles.
    Ex. To start with, most catalogues, indexes, data bases and bibliographies provide access to information or documents.
    Ex. Her tongue was unloosed now, and she gazed at him questioningly, piercingly.
    Ex. As Confucius said ' behold the turtle, he makes progress only when his neck is out'.
    ----
    * aficionado a contemplar las estrellas = stargazer.
    * algo digno de contemplar = a sight to behold.
    * contemplar la posibilidad = toy with, toy with + idea of, entertain + the possibility.
    * contemplar la posibilidad de suicidarse = contemplate + suicide.
    * contemplar las estrellas = stargaze.
    * contemplar posibilidades = envision + possibilities.
    * contemplar una situación = address + situation.
    * contemplar una vista = contemplate + view.
    * una vista digna de contemplar = a sight to behold.
    * un espectáculo digno de contemplar = a sight to behold.
    * * *
    verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) <paisaje/cuadro> to gaze at, contemplate
    b) <obra/artista> to examine, study
    c) <posibilidad/idea> to consider

    la nueva propuesta contempla un aumento del 5% — the new proposal envisages the possibility of a 5% rise

    2) (Esp) ( mimar) to spoil
    * * *
    = allow for, cater for/to, envisage, envision, provide, gaze, behold.

    Ex: It also allows for and identifies three levels of detail which might be adopted in descriptive cataloguing.

    Ex: Labelling of subjects presents problems mainly because, in order to achieve a user-orientated approach, the various approaches of different users must be catered for.
    Ex: It is fairly common to have to modify a standard list, or compile a fresh list when a new application is envisaged.
    Ex: Let me further specify the requirements of the catalog envisioned by the Paris Principles.
    Ex: To start with, most catalogues, indexes, data bases and bibliographies provide access to information or documents.
    Ex: Her tongue was unloosed now, and she gazed at him questioningly, piercingly.
    Ex: As Confucius said ' behold the turtle, he makes progress only when his neck is out'.
    * aficionado a contemplar las estrellas = stargazer.
    * algo digno de contemplar = a sight to behold.
    * contemplar la posibilidad = toy with, toy with + idea of, entertain + the possibility.
    * contemplar la posibilidad de suicidarse = contemplate + suicide.
    * contemplar las estrellas = stargaze.
    * contemplar posibilidades = envision + possibilities.
    * contemplar una situación = address + situation.
    * contemplar una vista = contemplate + view.
    * una vista digna de contemplar = a sight to behold.
    * un espectáculo digno de contemplar = a sight to behold.

    * * *
    contemplar [A1 ]
    vt
    A
    1 ‹paisaje/cuadro› to gaze at, contemplate
    desde el balcón se contempla un panorama precioso there is a wonderful view from the balcony
    a la izquierda pueden ustedes contemplar el Palacio Real on the left you can see the Royal Palace
    2 ‹obra/artista› to examine, study
    3 ‹posibilidad/idea› to consider
    la nueva propuesta contempla un aumento del 5% the new proposal envisages the possibility of a 5% rise
    la legislación actual no contempla este caso there is no provision for a situation of this kind in the current legislation o the current legislation does not provide for a situation of this kind
    no tengo contemplado ir I'm not thinking of going
    B (complacer) to spoil
    * * *

     

    contemplar ( conjugate contemplar) verbo transitivo
    a) ‹paisaje/cuadro› to gaze at, contemplate

    b) ‹posibilidad/idea› to consider, contemplate

    contemplar verbo transitivo
    1 (admirar, recrearse) to contemplate
    2 (una posibilidad) to consider
    3 (ser condescendiente) coddle: le contemplas demasiado, you coddle him too much
    ' contemplar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    codificar
    - admirar
    - mirar
    English:
    consider
    - contemplate
    - entertain
    - survey
    - behold
    - regard
    * * *
    1. [paisaje, monumento] to look at, to contemplate
    2. [opción, posibilidad] to contemplate, to consider;
    la ley contempla varios supuestos the law provides for o covers various cases;
    esta propuesta no contempla los ingresos por publicidad this proposal doesn't take into account income from advertising;
    el proyecto no contempla hacer excepciones the project makes no provision for exceptions;
    contemplamos el futuro con esperanza we are hopeful about the future, we look to the future with hope;
    está contemplando presentar la dimisión she is considering handing in her resignation
    3. [consentir] to spoil
    * * *
    v/t
    1 ( mirar) look at, contemplate
    2 posibilidad consider
    * * *
    1) : to contemplate, to ponder
    2) : to gaze at, to look at
    * * *
    contemplar vb to consider / to contemplate

    Spanish-English dictionary > contemplar

  • 16 Memory

       To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)
       [Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)
       The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)
       4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of Psychology
       If a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)
       We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)
       The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)
       7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat Discouraging
       The results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)
       A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)
       Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....
       Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)
       When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....
       However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)
       Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)
       Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)
       The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Memory

  • 17 dar una idea de

    (v.) = give + a feel for, give + indication, provide + a glimpse of, give + a flavour of, be indicative of, provide + insight into, give + a picture, give + an insight into, give + an inkling of
    Ex. I have I hope given you a feel for the current thinking on university library building in the UK.
    Ex. The article 'Cross age tutoring works wonders' describes the development of that project, the basic tutoring session and gives an indication of the project's success.
    Ex. Close attention to the role of the computer specialist provides a glimpse of the world behind the reference desk.
    Ex. The physical representation of data on disks is a complicated subject and the foregoing discussion gives but a flavour of the various techniques.
    Ex. His definitive article, 'Backlog to Frontlog,' Library Journal (September 15, 1969), was indicative of his creative and simple, yet effective and economical solutions to traditional library problems.
    Ex. This article reports the findings of an investigation which was conducted in order to determine if either the impact factor or the immediacy index provide useful insights into the qualitative relations among scientific journals.
    Ex. The 1981 census data was used as a rough guide to give a picture of the area and to compile graphs from these statistics.
    Ex. His plenary address gave an insight into government thinking on library and information policy.
    Ex. This collection of essays gives some inkling of where the early 1990s have left Bach study.
    * * *
    (v.) = give + a feel for, give + indication, provide + a glimpse of, give + a flavour of, be indicative of, provide + insight into, give + a picture, give + an insight into, give + an inkling of

    Ex: I have I hope given you a feel for the current thinking on university library building in the UK.

    Ex: The article 'Cross age tutoring works wonders' describes the development of that project, the basic tutoring session and gives an indication of the project's success.
    Ex: Close attention to the role of the computer specialist provides a glimpse of the world behind the reference desk.
    Ex: The physical representation of data on disks is a complicated subject and the foregoing discussion gives but a flavour of the various techniques.
    Ex: His definitive article, 'Backlog to Frontlog,' Library Journal (September 15, 1969), was indicative of his creative and simple, yet effective and economical solutions to traditional library problems.
    Ex: This article reports the findings of an investigation which was conducted in order to determine if either the impact factor or the immediacy index provide useful insights into the qualitative relations among scientific journals.
    Ex: The 1981 census data was used as a rough guide to give a picture of the area and to compile graphs from these statistics.
    Ex: His plenary address gave an insight into government thinking on library and information policy.
    Ex: This collection of essays gives some inkling of where the early 1990s have left Bach study.

    Spanish-English dictionary > dar una idea de

  • 18 forma

    f.
    1 shape, form (figura).
    en forma de in the shape of
    en forma de L L-shaped
    tener forma ovalada o de óvalo to be oval in shape
    formas figure, curves (silueta)
    2 way, manner (manera).
    se puede hacer de varias formas it can be done in several different ways
    ¡qué forma de llover! it's absolutely pouring down!
    de cualquier forma, de todas formas anyway, in any case
    de esta forma in this way
    forma de pago method of payment
    forma de ser: es su forma de ser that's just the way he is
    3 form.
    la fotografía es una forma de arte photography is an art form
    formas de vida life forms
    4 form (no fondo).
    forma y fondo form and content
    5 host (religion).
    6 form (formulario). (Mexican Spanish)
    7 kind, form.
    8 aspect, semblance, appearance.
    9 cast.
    pres.indicat.
    3rd person singular (él/ella/ello) present indicative of spanish verb: formar.
    imperat.
    2nd person singular (tú) Imperative of Spanish verb: formar.
    * * *
    1 (gen) form, shape
    2 (manera) way
    3 DEPORTE form
    1 (modales) manners, social conventions
    \
    de esta forma in this way
    de forma que so that
    de todas formas anyway, in any case
    estar en baja forma to be off form
    estar en forma to be in shape, be fit
    ponerse en forma to get fit
    buenas formas good manners
    forma de pago method of payment
    forma física physical fitness
    la Sagrada Forma the Host
    * * *
    noun f.
    1) form, shape
    2) manner, way
    •
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=figura) shape

    • nubes de humo con forma de hongo — mushroom-shaped clouds of smoke

    • dar forma a — [+ objeto, joya] to shape; [+ idea, teoría] to give shape to

    • en forma de U — U-shaped

    • tomar forma — to take shape

    2) (=modo) way

    • de forma directa/inmediata/natural — directly/immediately/naturally

    el plan entrará en vigor de forma inmediata — the plan will take immediate effect, the plan will take effect immediately

    • de esta forma — [gen] in this way; (=por consecuencia) thus

    queremos controlar los costes y, de esta forma, evitar reducir la plantilla — we want to bring down costs and thus avoid having to downsize

    • de todas formas — anyway, in any case

    pero de todas formas te agradezco que me lo hayas dicho — but thank you for letting me know anyway, but in any case thank you for letting me know

    forma de pago — method of payment, form of payment

    forma de ser, es mi forma de ser — that's how I am, that's the way I am

    3)

    • de forma que — (=en un modo que) in such a way as, so as; (=por eso) so that

    el número de socios fue creciendo cada año, de forma que en 1989 eran ya varios miles — the number of members grew every year, so that o such that by 1989 there were several thousand

    • de tal forma que — (=en un modo que) in such a way that; (=tanto que) so much that; (=por eso) so that

    su padre era italiano y su madre polaca, de tal forma que él siempre se ha sentido europeo — his father was Italian and his mother Polish, so (that) he has always felt himself to be European

    4) (tb: forma física) fitness, form

    el jugador ha recuperado su forma física — the player is fit again, the player has regained fitness o form

    • estar en (buena) forma — [para hacer deporte] to be fit, be in good shape; [para realizar otra actividad] to be in (good) form

    estar en baja forma — (lit) to be not fully fit; (fig) to be in bad shape

    5) (=aspecto externo) form

    es pura forma — it's just for the sake of form, it's a mere formality

    • defecto de forma — (Jur) technicality

    6) pl formas [femeninas] figure sing
    7) pl formas [sociales] appearances

    • guardar o mantener las formas — to keep up appearances

    8) (Rel)

    • la Sagrada Forma — the Host

    9) (=molde) (Téc) mould, mold (EEUU); [de zapatero] last; [de sombrero] hatter's block; (Tip) forme, form (EEUU)
    10) (Ling) [del verbo] form
    11) (Tip) (=formato) format
    12) LAm
    *

    • en forma, una fiesta en forma — a proper party, a blowout *

    13) Méx form
    see MANERA, FORMA, MODO
    * * *
    1)
    a) (contorno, apariencia) shape

    dar forma a algo — ( al barro) to shape something; ( a proyecto) to give shape to something

    b) (tipo, modalidad) form
    2) (Lit) (de una novela, obra) form; (Fil) form
    3) (Ling) form
    4) (Dep, Med)

    estar/mantenerse en forma — to be/keep fit

    en forma — (AmL fam)

    nos divertimos en forma — (AmL fam) we had a really good time

    5) (manera, modo) way

    de forma que — (frml) in such a way that

    de cualquier forma or de todas formas — anyway, in any case

    6) formas femenino plural
    a) ( de mujer) figure
    b) ( apariencias) appearances (pl)
    7) (Méx) ( formulario) form
    * * *
    = approach [approaches, -pl.], form, guise, means, mode, shape, way, mould [mold, -USA], shaping, complexion, manner, fashion.
    Ex. During the last twenty years the variety of approaches to the organisation of knowledge has proliferated with the introduction of computer-based methods.
    Ex. It is under the chosen form of heading that the catalogue entry for a particular document is filed and hence located.
    Ex. In various guises, the basic concepts have found application in the design of a number of special classification schemes.
    Ex. The easiest means of illustrating some of the foregoing points is to introduce in outline some special classification schemes.
    Ex. Various modes of operation are possible for such a journal, and the precise operation will depend upon the type of information being conveyed.
    Ex. If the book has an unusual shape then both the height and the width of the book will be given.
    Ex. They are likely to influence the future function of DC, and the way in which the scheme will evolve, but since there will be a continuing need for shelf arrangement, DC will remain necessary.
    Ex. The two moulds, which were twins, were oblong wire sieves mounted on wooden frames, and the deckle was a removable wooden rim which could be fitted to either mould to make it into a tray-like sieve with a raised edge.
    Ex. The process of shaping the scientific and technical propaganda into a legitimate specialisation is described.
    Ex. These documents contain the Commission's sentiments on how policy should be evolved in particular sectors and what complexion it should take = Estos documentos contienen el sentir de la Comisión de cómo debería desarrollarse la política en sectores concretos y qué cariz debería tomar.
    Ex. City planning is a body of techniques and theories for co-ordinative decision-making which tries to distribute the community's resources in a manner which will best achieve the community's specific goals, whatever they may be = El urbanismo es un conjunto de técnicas y teorías para la toma coordinada de decisiones que intenta distribuir los recursos de la comunidad de tal forma que se consigan mejor los objetivos específicos de ésta, sean cuales sean.
    Ex. It was on the tip of his tongue to say: 'Must you speak to me in this uncivilized fashion?' But he discreetly forbore.
    ----
    * acabar de forma positiva = end + Nombre + on a high (note).
    * actuar de forma negligente = be remiss.
    * adoptar forma = take + shape.
    * adoptar la forma de = take + form, take + the form of, come in + the form of.
    * aprender de la forma más difícil = learn + the hard way.
    * asumir una forma = assume + form.
    * botón en forma de palo = toggle fastener.
    * buena forma física = fitness, physical fitness.
    * buscar la forma de = look for + ways to.
    * buscar la forma de + Infinitivo = develop + way of + Gerundio.
    * buscar una forma de hacer (algo) = develop + way + to make + Nombre.
    * caer en forma de cascada = cascade.
    * cambiar de forma = shape-shift.
    * cambiar de forma de vivir = turn + Posesivo + life around.
    * catálogo encuadernado en forma de listado de ordenador = computer book form catalogue.
    * catálogo en forma de álbum = guard (book) catalogue.
    * catálogo en forma de libro = bookform catalogue, book catalogue.
    * catálogo en forma de libro encuadernado = bound book form catalogue.
    * catálogo en forma de listado = computer print-out catalogue.
    * catálogo en forma de listado de ordenador = computer book form catalogue.
    * catálogo impreso en forma de libro = printed book catalogue.
    * como forma de vida = as a way of life.
    * como una forma de = as a means of.
    * concepto de forma = form concept.
    * con forma de castillo = castellated.
    * con forma de estrella = star-shaped [star shaped].
    * con forma de pelo = hair-like.
    * con forma de pera = pear-shaped.
    * con forma de pirámide = trihedral, pyramidal-shaped.
    * con forma de tetraedro = trihedral.
    * con forma de U = U-shaped.
    * con forma piramidal = pyramidal-shaped.
    * dar cuerpo y forma a = lend + substance and form to.
    * dar forma = become + cast, give + shape, shape, mould [mold, -USA], inform.
    * dar nueva forma = reformat [re-format].
    * de alguna forma = in one way or another, one way or another.
    * de alguna otra forma = in any other way.
    * de cualquier forma = in any event, in any way [in anyway], in any case, in any way at all.
    * de cualquier forma posible = in any and all ways.
    * de esta forma = in this fashion, in this manner, in this way.
    * de forma = in form.
    * de forma abrumadora = overwhelmingly.
    * de forma aceptable = adequately, acceptably.
    * de forma adecuada = adequately, appropriately.
    * de forma alternada = in alternating fashion.
    * de forma alternativa = alternatively.
    * de forma anónima = anonymously.
    * de forma aplastante = overwhelmingly.
    * de forma apreciable = markedly.
    * de forma apropiada = properly, fitly, appropriately.
    * de forma audible = audibly.
    * de forma autónoma = autonomously.
    * de forma caprichosa = capriciously.
    * de forma clara = clearly.
    * de forma colegiada = collegially.
    * de forma combinada = in combination.
    * de forma competitiva = competitively.
    * de forma complementaria = complimentarily.
    * de forma completa = in full.
    * de forma conjunta con = in partnership with.
    * de forma considerable = considerably.
    * de forma continuada = continuously.
    * de forma cuadrada = squarish, square-shaped.
    * de forma deductiva = deductively.
    * de forma desastrosa = disastrously.
    * de forma deshonesta = dishonestly.
    * de forma diferente = differently shaped.
    * de forma digital = digitally.
    * de forma divertida = funnily.
    * de forma económica = cost-effectively.
    * de forma errática = erratically.
    * de forma escandalosa = outrageously.
    * de forma especulativa = speculatively.
    * de forma estructurada = in a structured fashion.
    * de forma exquisita = exquisitely.
    * de forma extraña = oddly, funnily.
    * de forma federal = federally.
    * de forma general = widely, bulk.
    * de forma global = holistically.
    * de forma graciosa = funnily.
    * de forma gratis = on a complimentary basis.
    * de forma gratuita = on a complimentary basis.
    * de forma grotesca = grotesquely.
    * de forma heterogénea = heterogeneously [heterogenously].
    * de forma heurística = heuristically.
    * de forma humorística = in a humorous vein.
    * de forma imaginativa = imaginatively.
    * de forma indirecta = circuitous route.
    * de forma inesperada = like a bolt out of the blue, like a bolt from the blue.
    * de forma innata = innately.
    * de forma irregular = erratically.
    * de forma lamentable = miserably.
    * de forma lógica = in a meaningful way.
    * de forma mágica = magically.
    * de forma mecánica = mechanically.
    * de forma mordaz = pungently.
    * de forma muy parecida a = in much the same way as.
    * de forma muy similar a = in much the same way as.
    * de forma negativa = in a negative light.
    * de forma neutral = neutrally.
    * de forma notoria = markedly.
    * de forma óptima = optimally.
    * de forma personalizada = on a one-to-one basis.
    * de forma poco ética = unethically.
    * de forma poco imaginativa = unimaginatively.
    * de forma poco profesional = unprofessionally.
    * de forma poco razonable = unreasonably.
    * de forma positiva = in a positive light, constructively.
    * de forma práctica = pragmatically.
    * de forma precisa = precisely.
    * de forma puntual = occasionally, when necessary.
    * de forma que = in ways that.
    * de forma que resulta más fácil de entender = in digestible form.
    * de forma rara = oddly, funnily.
    * de forma recíproca = reciprocally.
    * de forma regular = regularly.
    * de forma rentable = cost-effectively.
    * de forma ridícula = grotesquely.
    * de forma saludable = healthily.
    * de forma sana = healthily.
    * de forma significativa = to any significant extent, to a significant extent.
    * de forma sistemática = in a systematic fashion.
    * de forma sofisticada = sophisticatedly.
    * de forma subconsciente = subconsciously.
    * de forma sublime = subliminally.
    * de forma suscinta = in brief.
    * de forma terapéutica = therapeutically.
    * de forma tosca = in crude form.
    * de forma trágica = tragically.
    * de igual forma = in like manner, in a like manner, in like fashion, in like vein.
    * de la forma más difícil = the hard way.
    * de la forma más fácil = the easy way .
    * de la mejor forma posible = to the best of + Posesivo + ability.
    * de la misma forma que = in the same way (as), in the same manner (as), in much the same way as.
    * de la otra forma = the other way (a)round.
    * de muchas formas = in more ways than one.
    * de ninguna forma = in any way at all.
    * de ninguna otra forma = in any other way.
    * de nuevas formas = in new ways.
    * de otra forma = in any other way.
    * describir de forma general = outline.
    * de tal forma que + ser/estar = in such form as to + be.
    * de todas formas = anyway(s), at any rate, anyhow.
    * de todas las formas posibles = in any and all ways.
    * de una forma = in a fashion.
    * de una forma + Adjetivo = in + Adjetivo + manner.
    * de una forma ambigua = ambiguously.
    * de una forma brillante = brilliantly.
    * de una forma deplorable = execrably.
    * de una forma fácil = easily.
    * de una forma hábil = skilfully [skillfully, -USA].
    * de una forma intangible = intangibly.
    * de una forma lógica = logically.
    * de una forma monstruosa = monstrously.
    * de una forma organizada = in an organised fashion.
    * de una forma rápida = quickly.
    * de una forma relativamente + Nombre = relatively + Adverbio.
    * de una forma simple = in a simple manner, simply.
    * de una forma tautológica = tautologically.
    * de una forma u otra = in some form or other, in one way or another, one way or another, in one form or another.
    * de una nueva forma = in a new way.
    * dispuesto de forma uniforme = regimented.
    * división de forma = form division.
    * edificio en forma de cubo = cubic building.
    * en buena forma = in good nick.
    * encabezamiento de forma = form heading.
    * encontrar la forma de = devise + ways.
    * en forma = fit [fitter -comp., fittest -sup.], toned.
    * en forma de = in the form of, in the shape of.
    * en forma de A = A-shaped.
    * en forma de arco = arched, bowed.
    * en forma de capa = cape-like.
    * en forma de cruz = cross-shaped.
    * en forma de cuadrado = square-shaped.
    * en forma de cuña = wedge-shaped.
    * en forma de cúpula = dome-shaped, domed.
    * en forma de D = d-shaped.
    * en forma de estrella = star-shaped [star shaped].
    * en forma de libro = in book form.
    * en forma de medialuna = crescent-shaped.
    * en forma de parásito = parasitically.
    * en forma de pera = pear-shaped.
    * en forma de pirámide = pyramidal-shaped.
    * en forma de trompeta = trumpet-shaped.
    * en forma de U = U-shaped.
    * en forma de V = V-shaped.
    * en forma física = physically fit.
    * en forma física y mental = physically and mentally fit.
    * en forma ovalada = oval-shaped.
    * en forma piramidal = pyramidal-shaped.
    * en mala forma = in bad nick.
    * en plena forma = in peak condition, in tip-top form, in tip-top condition.
    * en su forma más básica = at its most basic.
    * entintar la forma = beat + the forme.
    * entrada de forma = form entry.
    * estar en forma = be in shape, be in good shape.
    * estar ordenado en forma circular = be on a wheel.
    * faceta de forma = Form facet.
    * forma adjetival = adjectival form.
    * forma artística = art form.
    * forma de actuar = discourse.
    * forma de comportamiento = mode of behaviour, way of conduct.
    * forma de conducta = mode of conduct, way of conduct.
    * forma de conseguir algo = lever.
    * forma de doble fondo = double-faced mould.
    * forma de escribir = writing style.
    * forma de evitar Algo = way round + Algo.
    * forma de evitar una dificultad = way (a)round + difficulty.
    * forma de evitar un problema = way round + problem.
    * forma de expresión = way of expression, mode of expression.
    * forma de funcionar = business model.
    * forma de hablar = manner of speaking.
    * forma de hacer papel = paper mould.
    * forma de impresión = composing frame, forme, plate, frame.
    * forma de la curva estadística en su valor más alto = peak-shape.
    * forma de pago = form of payment.
    * forma de papel vitela = wove mould.
    * forma de pensar = thinking, belief system, set of opinions, mode of thought, mode of thinking.
    * forma de presentación = form of presentation.
    * forma de trabajar = working practice, work practice, business model.
    * forma de un solo fondo = single-faced mould.
    * forma de un solo fondo para papel verjurado = single-faced laid mould.
    * forma de ver las cosas = way of putting things together, bent of mind.
    * forma de vida = way of life.
    * forma excelente = commanding form.
    * forma física = physical form, physical condition, physical shape.
    * forma flexionada = inflected form.
    * forma geométrica = geometric shape, geometric pattern.
    * forma impresa = hard copy [hardcopy].
    * forma intelectual = intellectual form.
    * forma manual = hand mould.
    * forma nominal = noun form.
    * forma para papel verjurado = laid mould.
    * ganar de forma abrumadora = beat + Nombre + hands down, win + hands down.
    * ganar de forma aplastante = beat + Nombre + hands down, win + hands down, win by + a landslide.
    * ganar de forma arrolladora = win by + a landslide.
    * guardar las formas = keep up + appearances.
    * indicar las formas (de/en que) = point to + ways (of/in which).
    * la forma correcta de hacer las cosas = the way to go.
    * la forma de = ways and means (of/for/to/in/by).
    * la forma de + Infinitivo = the way to go about + Gerundio.
    * la forma de ver las cosas = the way + to see things.
    * la mejor forma de hacer Algo = lessons learned [lessons learnt].
    * mantenerse en forma = keep + fit.
    * no haber forma de = there + be + no way.
    * no hay forma de que = for the life of me.
    * ofrecer una forma de = provide + a way of/to.
    * orientado hacia la forma = form-oriented.
    * participar de forma activa = involve.
    * participar de forma activa en = engage in.
    * participar de una forma activa = become + involved.
    * pensar de forma creativa = think out(side) + (of) the box.
    * poner en forma = buff up.
    * ponerse en forma = get + fit.
    * ponerse en forma para la lucir el cuerpo en la playa = get + beach-fit.
    * por la forma = by the way.
    * presentar en forma de tabla = tabulate.
    * red en forma de estrella = star network [star-network].
    * sentirse en plena forma = feel + tip-top.
    * ser la forma abreviada de = be short for.
    * ser la forma de = be a recipe for.
    * ser mirado de forma extraña = get + some funny looks.
    * ser una forma de = provide + a way of/to.
    * sin forma = bodilessly, formless.
    * sugerir la forma de = suggest + way in which.
    * tener forma + Adjetivo = be + Adjetivo + in shape.
    * terminar de forma positiva = end + Nombre + on a high (note).
    * tomar forma = take + form, take + shape, assume + form, shape up.
    * una buena forma de empezar = a good way to start.
    * volver a dar forma = reshape [re-shape].
    * * *
    1)
    a) (contorno, apariencia) shape

    dar forma a algo — ( al barro) to shape something; ( a proyecto) to give shape to something

    b) (tipo, modalidad) form
    2) (Lit) (de una novela, obra) form; (Fil) form
    3) (Ling) form
    4) (Dep, Med)

    estar/mantenerse en forma — to be/keep fit

    en forma — (AmL fam)

    nos divertimos en forma — (AmL fam) we had a really good time

    5) (manera, modo) way

    de forma que — (frml) in such a way that

    de cualquier forma or de todas formas — anyway, in any case

    6) formas femenino plural
    a) ( de mujer) figure
    b) ( apariencias) appearances (pl)
    7) (Méx) ( formulario) form
    * * *
    = approach [approaches, -pl.], form, guise, means, mode, shape, way, mould [mold, -USA], shaping, complexion, manner, fashion.

    Ex: During the last twenty years the variety of approaches to the organisation of knowledge has proliferated with the introduction of computer-based methods.

    Ex: It is under the chosen form of heading that the catalogue entry for a particular document is filed and hence located.
    Ex: In various guises, the basic concepts have found application in the design of a number of special classification schemes.
    Ex: The easiest means of illustrating some of the foregoing points is to introduce in outline some special classification schemes.
    Ex: Various modes of operation are possible for such a journal, and the precise operation will depend upon the type of information being conveyed.
    Ex: If the book has an unusual shape then both the height and the width of the book will be given.
    Ex: They are likely to influence the future function of DC, and the way in which the scheme will evolve, but since there will be a continuing need for shelf arrangement, DC will remain necessary.
    Ex: The two moulds, which were twins, were oblong wire sieves mounted on wooden frames, and the deckle was a removable wooden rim which could be fitted to either mould to make it into a tray-like sieve with a raised edge.
    Ex: The process of shaping the scientific and technical propaganda into a legitimate specialisation is described.
    Ex: These documents contain the Commission's sentiments on how policy should be evolved in particular sectors and what complexion it should take = Estos documentos contienen el sentir de la Comisión de cómo debería desarrollarse la política en sectores concretos y qué cariz debería tomar.
    Ex: City planning is a body of techniques and theories for co-ordinative decision-making which tries to distribute the community's resources in a manner which will best achieve the community's specific goals, whatever they may be = El urbanismo es un conjunto de técnicas y teorías para la toma coordinada de decisiones que intenta distribuir los recursos de la comunidad de tal forma que se consigan mejor los objetivos específicos de ésta, sean cuales sean.
    Ex: It was on the tip of his tongue to say: 'Must you speak to me in this uncivilized fashion?' But he discreetly forbore.
    * acabar de forma positiva = end + Nombre + on a high (note).
    * actuar de forma negligente = be remiss.
    * adoptar forma = take + shape.
    * adoptar la forma de = take + form, take + the form of, come in + the form of.
    * aprender de la forma más difícil = learn + the hard way.
    * asumir una forma = assume + form.
    * botón en forma de palo = toggle fastener.
    * buena forma física = fitness, physical fitness.
    * buscar la forma de = look for + ways to.
    * buscar la forma de + Infinitivo = develop + way of + Gerundio.
    * buscar una forma de hacer (algo) = develop + way + to make + Nombre.
    * caer en forma de cascada = cascade.
    * cambiar de forma = shape-shift.
    * cambiar de forma de vivir = turn + Posesivo + life around.
    * catálogo encuadernado en forma de listado de ordenador = computer book form catalogue.
    * catálogo en forma de álbum = guard (book) catalogue.
    * catálogo en forma de libro = bookform catalogue, book catalogue.
    * catálogo en forma de libro encuadernado = bound book form catalogue.
    * catálogo en forma de listado = computer print-out catalogue.
    * catálogo en forma de listado de ordenador = computer book form catalogue.
    * catálogo impreso en forma de libro = printed book catalogue.
    * como forma de vida = as a way of life.
    * como una forma de = as a means of.
    * concepto de forma = form concept.
    * con forma de castillo = castellated.
    * con forma de estrella = star-shaped [star shaped].
    * con forma de pelo = hair-like.
    * con forma de pera = pear-shaped.
    * con forma de pirámide = trihedral, pyramidal-shaped.
    * con forma de tetraedro = trihedral.
    * con forma de U = U-shaped.
    * con forma piramidal = pyramidal-shaped.
    * dar cuerpo y forma a = lend + substance and form to.
    * dar forma = become + cast, give + shape, shape, mould [mold, -USA], inform.
    * dar nueva forma = reformat [re-format].
    * de alguna forma = in one way or another, one way or another.
    * de alguna otra forma = in any other way.
    * de cualquier forma = in any event, in any way [in anyway], in any case, in any way at all.
    * de cualquier forma posible = in any and all ways.
    * de esta forma = in this fashion, in this manner, in this way.
    * de forma = in form.
    * de forma abrumadora = overwhelmingly.
    * de forma aceptable = adequately, acceptably.
    * de forma adecuada = adequately, appropriately.
    * de forma alternada = in alternating fashion.
    * de forma alternativa = alternatively.
    * de forma anónima = anonymously.
    * de forma aplastante = overwhelmingly.
    * de forma apreciable = markedly.
    * de forma apropiada = properly, fitly, appropriately.
    * de forma audible = audibly.
    * de forma autónoma = autonomously.
    * de forma caprichosa = capriciously.
    * de forma clara = clearly.
    * de forma colegiada = collegially.
    * de forma combinada = in combination.
    * de forma competitiva = competitively.
    * de forma complementaria = complimentarily.
    * de forma completa = in full.
    * de forma conjunta con = in partnership with.
    * de forma considerable = considerably.
    * de forma continuada = continuously.
    * de forma cuadrada = squarish, square-shaped.
    * de forma deductiva = deductively.
    * de forma desastrosa = disastrously.
    * de forma deshonesta = dishonestly.
    * de forma diferente = differently shaped.
    * de forma digital = digitally.
    * de forma divertida = funnily.
    * de forma económica = cost-effectively.
    * de forma errática = erratically.
    * de forma escandalosa = outrageously.
    * de forma especulativa = speculatively.
    * de forma estructurada = in a structured fashion.
    * de forma exquisita = exquisitely.
    * de forma extraña = oddly, funnily.
    * de forma federal = federally.
    * de forma general = widely, bulk.
    * de forma global = holistically.
    * de forma graciosa = funnily.
    * de forma gratis = on a complimentary basis.
    * de forma gratuita = on a complimentary basis.
    * de forma grotesca = grotesquely.
    * de forma heterogénea = heterogeneously [heterogenously].
    * de forma heurística = heuristically.
    * de forma humorística = in a humorous vein.
    * de forma imaginativa = imaginatively.
    * de forma indirecta = circuitous route.
    * de forma inesperada = like a bolt out of the blue, like a bolt from the blue.
    * de forma innata = innately.
    * de forma irregular = erratically.
    * de forma lamentable = miserably.
    * de forma lógica = in a meaningful way.
    * de forma mágica = magically.
    * de forma mecánica = mechanically.
    * de forma mordaz = pungently.
    * de forma muy parecida a = in much the same way as.
    * de forma muy similar a = in much the same way as.
    * de forma negativa = in a negative light.
    * de forma neutral = neutrally.
    * de forma notoria = markedly.
    * de forma óptima = optimally.
    * de forma personalizada = on a one-to-one basis.
    * de forma poco ética = unethically.
    * de forma poco imaginativa = unimaginatively.
    * de forma poco profesional = unprofessionally.
    * de forma poco razonable = unreasonably.
    * de forma positiva = in a positive light, constructively.
    * de forma práctica = pragmatically.
    * de forma precisa = precisely.
    * de forma puntual = occasionally, when necessary.
    * de forma que = in ways that.
    * de forma que resulta más fácil de entender = in digestible form.
    * de forma rara = oddly, funnily.
    * de forma recíproca = reciprocally.
    * de forma regular = regularly.
    * de forma rentable = cost-effectively.
    * de forma ridícula = grotesquely.
    * de forma saludable = healthily.
    * de forma sana = healthily.
    * de forma significativa = to any significant extent, to a significant extent.
    * de forma sistemática = in a systematic fashion.
    * de forma sofisticada = sophisticatedly.
    * de forma subconsciente = subconsciously.
    * de forma sublime = subliminally.
    * de forma suscinta = in brief.
    * de forma terapéutica = therapeutically.
    * de forma tosca = in crude form.
    * de forma trágica = tragically.
    * de igual forma = in like manner, in a like manner, in like fashion, in like vein.
    * de la forma más difícil = the hard way.
    * de la forma más fácil = the easy way.
    * de la mejor forma posible = to the best of + Posesivo + ability.
    * de la misma forma que = in the same way (as), in the same manner (as), in much the same way as.
    * de la otra forma = the other way (a)round.
    * de muchas formas = in more ways than one.
    * de ninguna forma = in any way at all.
    * de ninguna otra forma = in any other way.
    * de nuevas formas = in new ways.
    * de otra forma = in any other way.
    * describir de forma general = outline.
    * de tal forma que + ser/estar = in such form as to + be.
    * de todas formas = anyway(s), at any rate, anyhow.
    * de todas las formas posibles = in any and all ways.
    * de una forma = in a fashion.
    * de una forma + Adjetivo = in + Adjetivo + manner.
    * de una forma ambigua = ambiguously.
    * de una forma brillante = brilliantly.
    * de una forma deplorable = execrably.
    * de una forma fácil = easily.
    * de una forma hábil = skilfully [skillfully, -USA].
    * de una forma intangible = intangibly.
    * de una forma lógica = logically.
    * de una forma monstruosa = monstrously.
    * de una forma organizada = in an organised fashion.
    * de una forma rápida = quickly.
    * de una forma relativamente + Nombre = relatively + Adverbio.
    * de una forma simple = in a simple manner, simply.
    * de una forma tautológica = tautologically.
    * de una forma u otra = in some form or other, in one way or another, one way or another, in one form or another.
    * de una nueva forma = in a new way.
    * dispuesto de forma uniforme = regimented.
    * división de forma = form division.
    * edificio en forma de cubo = cubic building.
    * en buena forma = in good nick.
    * encabezamiento de forma = form heading.
    * encontrar la forma de = devise + ways.
    * en forma = fit [fitter -comp., fittest -sup.], toned.
    * en forma de = in the form of, in the shape of.
    * en forma de A = A-shaped.
    * en forma de arco = arched, bowed.
    * en forma de capa = cape-like.
    * en forma de cruz = cross-shaped.
    * en forma de cuadrado = square-shaped.
    * en forma de cuña = wedge-shaped.
    * en forma de cúpula = dome-shaped, domed.
    * en forma de D = d-shaped.
    * en forma de estrella = star-shaped [star shaped].
    * en forma de libro = in book form.
    * en forma de medialuna = crescent-shaped.
    * en forma de parásito = parasitically.
    * en forma de pera = pear-shaped.
    * en forma de pirámide = pyramidal-shaped.
    * en forma de trompeta = trumpet-shaped.
    * en forma de U = U-shaped.
    * en forma de V = V-shaped.
    * en forma física = physically fit.
    * en forma física y mental = physically and mentally fit.
    * en forma ovalada = oval-shaped.
    * en forma piramidal = pyramidal-shaped.
    * en mala forma = in bad nick.
    * en plena forma = in peak condition, in tip-top form, in tip-top condition.
    * en su forma más básica = at its most basic.
    * entintar la forma = beat + the forme.
    * entrada de forma = form entry.
    * estar en forma = be in shape, be in good shape.
    * estar ordenado en forma circular = be on a wheel.
    * faceta de forma = Form facet.
    * forma adjetival = adjectival form.
    * forma artística = art form.
    * forma de actuar = discourse.
    * forma de comportamiento = mode of behaviour, way of conduct.
    * forma de conducta = mode of conduct, way of conduct.
    * forma de conseguir algo = lever.
    * forma de doble fondo = double-faced mould.
    * forma de escribir = writing style.
    * forma de evitar Algo = way round + Algo.
    * forma de evitar una dificultad = way (a)round + difficulty.
    * forma de evitar un problema = way round + problem.
    * forma de expresión = way of expression, mode of expression.
    * forma de funcionar = business model.
    * forma de hablar = manner of speaking.
    * forma de hacer papel = paper mould.
    * forma de impresión = composing frame, forme, plate, frame.
    * forma de la curva estadística en su valor más alto = peak-shape.
    * forma de pago = form of payment.
    * forma de papel vitela = wove mould.
    * forma de pensar = thinking, belief system, set of opinions, mode of thought, mode of thinking.
    * forma de presentación = form of presentation.
    * forma de trabajar = working practice, work practice, business model.
    * forma de un solo fondo = single-faced mould.
    * forma de un solo fondo para papel verjurado = single-faced laid mould.
    * forma de ver las cosas = way of putting things together, bent of mind.
    * forma de vida = way of life.
    * forma excelente = commanding form.
    * forma física = physical form, physical condition, physical shape.
    * forma flexionada = inflected form.
    * forma geométrica = geometric shape, geometric pattern.
    * forma impresa = hard copy [hardcopy].
    * forma intelectual = intellectual form.
    * forma manual = hand mould.
    * forma nominal = noun form.
    * forma para papel verjurado = laid mould.
    * ganar de forma abrumadora = beat + Nombre + hands down, win + hands down.
    * ganar de forma aplastante = beat + Nombre + hands down, win + hands down, win by + a landslide.
    * ganar de forma arrolladora = win by + a landslide.
    * guardar las formas = keep up + appearances.
    * indicar las formas (de/en que) = point to + ways (of/in which).
    * la forma correcta de hacer las cosas = the way to go.
    * la forma de = ways and means (of/for/to/in/by).
    * la forma de + Infinitivo = the way to go about + Gerundio.
    * la forma de ver las cosas = the way + to see things.
    * la mejor forma de hacer Algo = lessons learned [lessons learnt].
    * mantenerse en forma = keep + fit.
    * no haber forma de = there + be + no way.
    * no hay forma de que = for the life of me.
    * ofrecer una forma de = provide + a way of/to.
    * orientado hacia la forma = form-oriented.
    * participar de forma activa = involve.
    * participar de forma activa en = engage in.
    * participar de una forma activa = become + involved.
    * pensar de forma creativa = think out(side) + (of) the box.
    * poner en forma = buff up.
    * ponerse en forma = get + fit.
    * ponerse en forma para la lucir el cuerpo en la playa = get + beach-fit.
    * por la forma = by the way.
    * presentar en forma de tabla = tabulate.
    * red en forma de estrella = star network [star-network].
    * sentirse en plena forma = feel + tip-top.
    * ser la forma abreviada de = be short for.
    * ser la forma de = be a recipe for.
    * ser mirado de forma extraña = get + some funny looks.
    * ser una forma de = provide + a way of/to.
    * sin forma = bodilessly, formless.
    * sugerir la forma de = suggest + way in which.
    * tener forma + Adjetivo = be + Adjetivo + in shape.
    * terminar de forma positiva = end + Nombre + on a high (note).
    * tomar forma = take + form, take + shape, assume + form, shape up.
    * una buena forma de empezar = a good way to start.
    * volver a dar forma = reshape [re-shape].

    * * *
    A
    1 (contorno, apariencia) shape
    tiene forma circular it's circular (in shape)
    en forma de cruz in the shape of a cross
    tiene la forma de un platillo it's the shape of a saucer o it's saucer-shaped
    los tenemos de todas formas y tamaños we have them in all shapes and sizes
    el alfarero da forma al barro the potter shapes the clay
    finalmente logró dar forma a sus proyectos he finally managed to give some shape to his plans
    el suéter ha cogido la forma de la percha the sweater's been stretched out of shape by the coat hanger
    el príncipe tomó la forma de una rana the prince turned into a frog
    la escultura/el proyecto está empezando a tomar forma the sculpture/plan is beginning to take shape
    2 (tipo, modalidad) form
    la discriminación no puede ser tolerada bajo ninguna de sus formas discrimination cannot be tolerated in any shape or form
    las distintas formas de vida animal the different forms of animal life
    el medicamento se presenta en forma de supositorios y de comprimidos the medicine comes in suppository or tablet form
    B
    1 ( Lit) (de una novela, obra) form
    fondo y forma form and content
    2 ( Der):
    3 ( Fil) form
    C ( Ling) form
    la forma singular the singular (form)
    D ( Dep, Med):
    estar/mantenerse en forma to be/keep fit
    esta temporada está en baja forma this season he's off form o he's not in good form
    me siento en plena forma I feel on top form
    en forma ( AmL fam): una comida en forma a good square meal ( colloq)
    hoy nos divertimos en forma we had a terrific o fantastic time today
    metiste la pata en (gran) forma you really put your foot in it ( colloq)
    E (manera, modo) way
    es su forma de ser it's just his way, it's just the way he is
    no me gusta nada su forma de organizar las cosas I don't like his way of organizing things at all
    ¡qué forma de gritar, ni que estuviese sorda! there's no need to shout, I'm not deaf!
    así no hay forma de entenderse we'll never get anywhere like this
    lo hizo de forma que él no se enterase ( frml); she did it in such a way that he would not find out
    Compuesto:
    form o method of payment
    2 (apariencias) appearances (pl)
    en público siempre guardan or cubren las formas they always keep up appearances in public
    G ( Méx) (formulario) form
    * * *

     

    Del verbo formar: ( conjugate formar)

    forma es:

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente indicativo

    2ª persona singular (tú) imperativo

    Multiple Entries:
    forma    
    formar
    forma sustantivo femenino
    1
    a) (contorno, apariencia) shape;


    tiene la forma de un platillo it's the shape of a saucer;
    dar forma a algo ( al barro) to shape sth;

    ( a proyecto) to give shape to sth
    b) (tipo, modalidad) form;


    forma de pago form o method of payment
    2 (Dep, Med):

    está en baja forma he's not on form;
    en plena forma on top form;
    en forma: nos divertimos en forma we had a really good time
    3 (manera, modo) way;

    ¡vaya forma de conducir! what a way to drive!;
    forma de vida way of life;
    de forma distinta differently;
    de cualquier forma or de todas formas anyway, in any case
    4
    ◊ formas sustantivo femenino plural




    5 (Méx) ( formulario) form
    formar ( conjugate formar) verbo transitivo
    1
    a) ( crear) ‹círculo/figura› to make, form;

    ‹asociación/gobierno› to form, set up;
    ‹ barricada› to set up;
    ◊ ¡formen parejas! ( en clase) get into pairs o twos!;


    ( en baile) take your partners!
    b) (Ling) to form

    c) (Mil) ‹ tropas› to have … fall in

    2 ( componer) to make up;

    forma parte de algo to be part of sth, to belong to sth
    3 ‹carácter/espíritu› to form, shape
    4 ( educar) to bring up;
    ( para trabajo) to train
    verbo intransitivo (Mil) to fall in
    formarse verbo pronominal
    1
    a) (hacerse, crearse) [grupo/organismo] to form;

    ◊ se formó una cola a line (AmE) o (BrE) queue formed

    b) ( desarrollarse) [niño/huesos] to develop

    c) ‹idea/opinión› to form

    2 ( educarse) to be educated;
    ( para trabajo) to be trained
    forma sustantivo femenino
    1 form, shape: una vasija en forma de campana, a bell-shaped vessel
    2 (modo) way: hazlo de otra forma do it another way
    no hay forma de probarlo, there's no way to prove it
    forma de pago, method of payment
    3 Dep form: está en baja forma, she's off form
    me mantengo en forma, I keep fit 4 formas, (modales) manners
    guardar las formas, to keep up appearances
    ♦ Locuciones: de forma que, so that
    de todas formas, anyway, in any case
    formar verbo transitivo
    1 to form
    2 (criar) to bring up
    (instruir) to educate, train
    ' forma' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    A
    - acento
    - aerodinámica
    - aerodinámico
    - amorfa
    - amorfo
    - anacrónica
    - anacrónico
    - borla
    - cerrada
    - cerrado
    - circular
    - congruente
    - cónica
    - cónico
    - corpórea
    - corpóreo
    - defraudar
    - diferente
    - ser
    - escribano
    - estrafalaria
    - estrafalario
    - estrechamiento
    - estrellada
    - estrellado
    - formalmente
    - herida
    - histriónica
    - histriónico
    - imitar
    - inicua
    - inicuo
    - ladrón
    - ladrona
    - mercenaria
    - mercenario
    - modo
    - óptica
    - oscurecer
    - pequeña
    - pequeño
    - política
    - redonda
    - redondo
    - sambenito
    - tallar
    - tela
    - tener
    - Tiro
    English:
    A
    - agenda
    - agree
    - alternately
    - amusing
    - an
    - and
    - angular
    - anyhow
    - arrange
    - as
    - attuned to
    - be
    - begin
    - best
    - blend
    - circle
    - crescent
    - cupcake
    - day
    - deny
    - diamond
    - disgusting
    - do
    - enjoy
    - expect
    - expedient
    - faint
    - figure
    - fish
    - fit
    - fitness
    - form
    - freeware
    - from
    - go
    - heart-shaped
    - hexagon
    - jelly baby
    - jelly bean
    - Jerkily
    - keep
    - kidney shaped
    - lack
    - lie
    - manner
    - mister
    - must
    - parcel
    - pear-shaped
    * * *
    forma nf
    1. [figura] shape, form;
    ¿qué forma tiene? what shape is it?;
    en forma de triángulo in the shape of a triangle;
    en forma de L L-shaped;
    el escultor dio forma al barro the sculptor shaped the clay;
    tener forma ovalada o [m5] de óvalo to be oval (in shape);
    el proyecto comienza a tomar forma the project is starting to take shape
    2. [manera] way, manner;
    tiene una forma de hablar muy divertida she has a very funny way of talking;
    no ha habido forma de localizarlo it was impossible to find him;
    se puede hacer de varias formas it can be done in several different ways;
    lo siento, es mi forma de ser I'm sorry, that's just the way I am o that's just my way;
    ¡qué forma de llover! it's absolutely pouring down!;
    de cualquier forma, de todas formas anyway, in any case;
    si lo hacemos de esta forma, acabaremos antes if we do it this way, we'll finish earlier;
    viajaremos en segunda, de esta forma recortaremos gastos we can travel second class, that way we'll keep the cost down;
    han organizado las conferencias de forma que haya diez minutos de intervalo entre ellas they've arranged the speeches in such a way that there's a ten-minute break between each one;
    llegaremos a las ocho, de forma que podamos comenzar temprano we'll be there by eight so (that) we can start early;
    dobla la camisa de forma que no se arruguen las mangas fold the shirt so (that) the sleeves don't get creased
    forma de pago method of payment
    3. [manifestación] form;
    la fotografía es una forma de arte photography is an art form
    4. [condición física] fitness;
    estar en forma to be fit;
    estar en baja/plena forma to be in poor/top shape;
    vuelvo a estar en plena forma I'm fully fit again;
    mantenerse/ponerse en forma to keep/get fit
    forma física physical fitness;
    en perfecta forma física in perfect (physical) shape
    5. [de equipo, artista] form;
    estar en forma to be on form;
    estar en baja/plena forma to be off form/on top form
    6.
    formas [silueta] figure, curves;
    7.
    formas [modales] manners, social conventions;
    guardar las formas to keep up appearances
    8. [horma, molde] mould
    9. Rel host;
    la Sagrada Forma the Holy Host
    10. Arte & Lit form;
    a este escritor le importa más la forma que el contenido this writer is more interested in form than content
    11. Ling form;
    en forma plural in the plural
    12. Méx [formulario] form
    * * *
    f
    1 form
    2 ( apariencia) shape;
    en forma de in the shape of;
    dar forma a algo shape sth
    3 ( manera) way;
    de forma que in such a way that;
    de todas formas in any case, anyway;
    de alguna forma, en cierta forma in a way;
    de ninguna forma not in the slightest, fam no way;
    no hay forma de que coma/estudie nothing will make him eat/study, it’s impossible to get him to eat/study
    4
    :
    formas pl proprieties;
    guardar las formas keep up appearances
    5
    :
    mantenerse en forma stay in shape
    6 Méx ( formulario) form
    * * *
    forma nf
    1) : form, shape
    2) manera, modo: manner, way
    3) : fitness
    estar en forma: to be fit, to be in shape
    4) formas nfpl
    : appearances, conventions
    * * *
    1. (contorno) shape
    ¿qué forma tiene? what shape is it?
    2. (manera) way
    de forma distinta in a different way / differently

    Spanish-English dictionary > forma

  • 19 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 20 prüfen

    I vt/i
    1. PÄD. test, give s.o. a test; in Examen: examine; er prüft sehr streng he’s a tough examiner; es wird schriftlich und mündlich geprüft there will be a written and an oral test ( oder exam); jemandes Russischkenntnisse prüfen test s.o.’s knowledge of Russian; staatlich geprüfter Dolmetscher / Skilehrer state-certified interpreter / skiing instructor
    2. (feststellen) check, test; damit wird logisches Denken geprüft it’s a test of logical thinking; jemanden auf sein Reaktionsvermögen hin prüfen test s.o.’s reactions
    3. (erproben) try (out), (put to the) test
    4. TECH. (abnehmen) inspect; METALL. assay; (untersuchen, genau betrachten) examine, study
    5. (Vorfall, Beschwerde etc.) investigate, look into
    6. (Vorschlag) consider, have a close look at; wir werden Ihr Angebot prüfen in Geschäftsbrief: we will study your offer
    7. (nachprüfen, überprüfen) check; ( auf Richtigkeit) prüfen verify, check; der Antrag wird geprüft is under consideration; etw. auf seine Echtheit hin prüfen check to see whether s.th. is genuine ( oder authentic)
    8. WIRTS. (Bücher) audit; JUR. (Entscheidung) review
    9. SPORT (TORWART) test; der Schlussmann wurde 90 Minuten lang nicht geprüft the goalkeeper was not tested once in the 90 minutes
    10. geh. (psychisch belasten) try; das Schicksal hat sie schwer geprüft she was sorely tried by fate, fate dealt her some heavy blows; er ist vom Leben schwer geprüft he has had a raw deal from life
    II v/refl do some soul-searching
    * * *
    to sift; to look over; to check; to review; to test; to quiz; to audit; to verify; to scrutinize; to examine; to inspect; to assay; to consider; to look into; to peruse;
    sich prüfen
    to introspect
    * * *
    prü|fen ['pryːfn]
    1. vt
    1) auch vi (SCH, UNIV) jdn to examine; Kenntnisse to examine, to test

    prǘfen — to examine sb in sth

    2) (= überprüfen) to check (
    auf +acc for); (= untersuchen) to examine, to check; (durch Ausprobieren) to test; (= auf die Probe stellen) to test; Geschäftsbücher to audit, to check, to examine; Lebensmittel, Wein to inspect, to test

    es wird geprüft, ob alle anwesend sind — they check or there's a check to see if everyone is present

    den Wein auf sein Aroma prǘfen — to sniff or test the bouquet of the wine

    Metall auf den Anteil an Fremdstoffen prǘfen — to check the level of impurities in metal

    jdn auf seine Ehrlichkeit prǘfen — to test or try sb's honesty

    wir werden die Beschwerde/Sache prǘfen — we'll look into or investigate the complaint/matter

    sie wollte ihn nur prǘfen — she only wanted to test him

    drum prüfe, wer sich ewig bindet (prov) — marry in haste, repent at leisure (Prov)

    3) (= erwägen) to examine, to consider

    etw nochmals prǘfen — to reconsider or review sth

    4) (= mustern) to scrutinize

    ein prǘfender Blick — a searching look

    5) (= heimsuchen) to try, to afflict

    ein schwer geprüfter Vater — a sorely tried father, a much afflicted father

    2. vi (SCH, UNIV)
    to give exams
    3. vr (geh)
    to search one's heart

    du musst dich selber prǘfen, ob... — you must decide for yourself or you must inquire of yourself (liter) whether...

    * * *
    1) ((especially American) to test: I'll check out your story.) check out
    2) (to look at closely; to inspect closely: They examined the animal tracks and decided that they were those of a fox.) examine
    3) (to test the knowledge or ability of (students etc): She examines pupils in mathematics.) examine
    4) (to inspect or investigate closely: The manager will look into your complaint.) look into
    5) (to examine: We have been looking over the new house.) look over
    6) (to carry out a test or tests on (someone or something): The students were tested on their French; They tested the new aircraft.) test
    * * *
    prü·fen
    [ˈpry:fn̩]
    I. vt
    1. (in einer Prüfung)
    ▪ jdn [in etw dat] \prüfen to examine sb [in [or on] sth]
    wir werden in allen Fächern geprüft we will be examined in all subjects
    ich wünschte, wir würden darin geprüft, was wir gelernt haben I wish they'd examine us on what we really studied
    Deutsch/Latein \prüfen to be the examiner for German/Latin
    jdn im Hauptfach/Nebenfach \prüfen to examine sb in his/her main/minor subject
    jds Kenntnisse \prüfen to test sb's knowledge
    mündlich/schriftlich geprüft werden to have an oral/a written examination
    ein staatlich geprüfter Lehrer a qualified teacher
    2. (überprüfen, untersuchen)
    ▪ etw [auf etw akk] \prüfen to check [or examine] sth [for sth]
    \prüfen Sie vor der Abfahrt Öl und Wasser check the oil and water before setting off
    ich muss noch ein paar Dinge \prüfen, bevor ich mich entscheiden kann I need to check up on a few things before I can decide
    der Bericht wurde vor der Veröffentlichung sorgfältig geprüft the report was carefully scrutinized [or studied] before publication
    unsere Bücher sind vor kurzem geprüft worden we've just had our accounts audited
    nach Eingang müssen die Waren auf Schäden geprüft werden the goods must be examined for damage on arrival
    das Wasser wird regelmäßig auf seine Reinheit geprüft the water is regularly tested for purity
    ▪ \prüfen, ob/wie... to check if/how...
    könntest du bitte \prüfen, ob das Wasser warm genug ist could you please check if the water is warm enough
    es wird geprüft, ob alle anwesend sind they check if everyone is present
    ein Alibi \prüfen to check out an alibi
    die Angaben auf Korrektheit \prüfen to examine the correctness of the details
    ein Angebot \prüfen to check [out] an offer
    eine Beschwerde \prüfen to investigate [or look into] a complaint
    das Beweismaterial nochmals \prüfen to review the evidence
    eine Bewerbung \prüfen to consider an application
    einen Fall nochmals \prüfen to re-examine a case
    die Funktionstüchtigkeit von etw dat \prüfen to check that sth works
    jds Gesundheitszustand \prüfen to give sb a check-up
    Informationen \prüfen to check information
    Lebensmittel/Waren \prüfen to inspect [or test] goods/food
    die Pässe \prüfen to check the passports
    den Preis \prüfen to check the price
    die Temperatur \prüfen to check the temperature
    eine Urkunde \prüfen to verify a certificate
    3. (testen)
    ▪ etw/jdn \prüfen to test sth/sb
    er prüfte den Wein auf sein Aroma he tested the bouquet of the vine
    er wollte sie nur \prüfen he only wanted to test her
    ein Material \prüfen to test a material
    jds Sehstärke \prüfen to test sb's eyesight
    4. (forschend ansehen)
    ▪ jdn \prüfen to scrutinize sb
    ein \prüfender Blick a searching look
    jdn mit den Augen prüfen, jdn mit \prüfenden Blicken ansehen to scrutinize sb carefully [or closely
    5. (geh: übel mitnehmen)
    jdn [hart [o schwer]] \prüfen to [sorely] try [or afflict] sb
    eine leidvoll geprüfte Mutter a sorely tried [or much afflicted] mother
    er ist vom Leben schwer geprüft worden his life has been a hard trial
    6.
    ▶ drum prüfe, wer sich ewig bindet (prov) marry in haste, repent at leisure prov
    II. vi SCH
    ▪ [in einem Fach] \prüfen to examine pupils/students [in a subject]
    wer hat bei dir geprüft? who examined you?
    morgen wird in Deutsch geprüft the German exams are tomorrow
    [in etw dat] streng \prüfen to set a hard examination [or be a hard examiner] [in sth]
    III. vr (geh)
    ▪ sich akk \prüfen to examine oneself, to search one's conscience [or liter heart]
    jd muss sich akk \prüfen, ob... sb must decide [for himself/herself] [or liter enquire of himself/herself] whether...
    ich muss mich \prüfen, ob ich das durchstehen kann I must decide whether I can get through that
    * * *
    1.
    1) auch itr. test < pupil> (in + Dat. in); (beim Examen) examine <pupil, student, etc.> (in + Dat. in)

    mündlich/schriftlich geprüft werden — have an oral/a written test/examination

    2) (untersuchen) examine (auf + Akk. for); check, examine <device, machine, calculation> (auf + Akk. for); investigate, look into < complaint>; (testen) test (auf + Akk. for)
    3) (kontrollieren) check <papers, passport, application, calculation, information, correctness, etc.>; audit, check, examine <accounts, books>
    4) (vor einer Entscheidung) check < price>; examine < offer>; consider < application>

    drum prüfe, wer sich ewig bindet — (Spr.) marry in haste, repent at leisure (prov.)

    5) (geh.): (großen Belastungen aussetzen) try

    sie ist vom Leben schwer geprüft worden — her life has been a hard trial

    2.
    reflexives Verb search one's heart
    * * *
    A. v/t & v/i
    1. SCHULE test, give sb a test; in Examen: examine;
    er prüft sehr streng he’s a tough examiner;
    es wird schriftlich und mündlich geprüft there will be a written and an oral test ( oder exam);
    jemandes Russischkenntnisse prüfen test sb’s knowledge of Russian;
    staatlich geprüfter Dolmetscher/Skilehrer state-certified interpreter/skiing instructor
    2. (feststellen) check, test;
    damit wird logisches Denken geprüft it’s a test of logical thinking;
    3. (erproben) try (out), (put to the) test
    4. TECH (abnehmen) inspect; METALL assay; (untersuchen, genau betrachten) examine, study
    5. (Vorfall, Beschwerde etc) investigate, look into
    6. (Vorschlag) consider, have a close look at;
    (auf Richtigkeit) prüfen verify, check;
    wird geprüft is under consideration;
    etwas auf seine Echtheit hin prüfen check to see whether sth is genuine ( oder authentic)
    8. WIRTSCH (Bücher) audit; JUR (Entscheidung) review
    9. SPORT (Torwart) test;
    der Schlussmann wurde 90 Minuten lang nicht geprüft the goalkeeper was not tested once in the 90 minutes
    10. geh (psychisch belasten) try;
    das Schicksal hat sie schwer geprüft she was sorely tried by fate, fate dealt her some heavy blows;
    er ist vom Leben schwer geprüft he has had a raw deal from life
    B. v/r do some soul-searching
    * * *
    1.
    1) auch itr. test < pupil> (in + Dat. in); (beim Examen) examine <pupil, student, etc.> (in + Dat. in)

    mündlich/schriftlich geprüft werden — have an oral/a written test/examination

    2) (untersuchen) examine (auf + Akk. for); check, examine <device, machine, calculation> (auf + Akk. for); investigate, look into < complaint>; (testen) test (auf + Akk. for)
    3) (kontrollieren) check <papers, passport, application, calculation, information, correctness, etc.>; audit, check, examine <accounts, books>
    4) (vor einer Entscheidung) check < price>; examine < offer>; consider < application>

    drum prüfe, wer sich ewig bindet — (Spr.) marry in haste, repent at leisure (prov.)

    2.
    reflexives Verb search one's heart
    * * *
    -reien n.
    verifying n.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > prüfen

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